AGRKL 

LIBRARY 


THE  BUSINESS  OF 
DAIRYING 


HOW  TO  CONDUCT  DAIRY  FARMING 
FOR     THE     LARGEST     PROFIT 


By 

CLARENCE  B.  LANE,  B.S. 

Assistant  Chief  of  the  Dairy  Division, 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  *  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 


ILLUSTRATED 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


NEW  YORK 

ORANGE     JUDD     COMPANY 

LONDON 

KEGAN  PAUL,   TRENCH,   TRUBNER   &  Co.,   Limited 
1909 


Lob 


AGRIC. 
LIBRARY 


COPYRIGHT,  1909,  BY 

ORANGE   JUDD    COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


[ENTERED   AT  STATIONERS'  HALL,  LONDON,   LNGLANDj 


PRINTED  IN  U.  S.  A. 


K 
a 


TTo  /IDs  Wife 


WHOSE   UNTIRING   EFFORTS    AND   VALUABLE    ASSISTANCE 

HAVE  MADE  POSSIBLE  THE  PRESENTATION 

OF  THIS  BOOK 


194723 


PREFACE 

THIS  little  book  has  been  prepared  for  the  use  of 
dairy  students,  producers  and  handlers  of  milk,  and 
all  who  make  dairying-  a  business.  Its  purpose  is 
to  present  in  clear  and  concise  form  various  business 
methods  and  systems  which  will  help  the  dairyman 
to  reap  greater  profits. 

The  main  effort  of  every  business  man  is  to  secure 
the  largest  possible  return  for  every  dollar  ex- 
pended, and  it  is  hard  to  convince  dairy  farmers 
that  in  their  branch  of  business,  as  in  any  other,  an 
accurate  account  of  expenditures  and  receipts  must 
be  kept,  in  order  to  determine  where  profits  are 
made  or  losses  occur.  Simple  methods  of  keeping 
these  records,  accounts,  etc.,  within  the  scope  of 
the  average  dairyman,  have  been  presented  and,  in 
as  many  instances  as  possible,  the  forms  and 
methods  themselves  have  been  used  instead  of  de- 
scriptions of  them. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  go  into  details  of 
growing  crops,  as  this  is  not  the  field  of  the  book. 
The  work  will  be  found  helpful  to  dairy  students, 
and  may  be  used  as  a  text  book  or  reference  in  dairy 
schools. 

The  book  has  been  written  largely  from  the 
author's  experience.  He  desires  to  acknowledge 
special  obligations  to  Prof.  Ivan  C.  Weld,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  and  Prof.  William  A. 


Vlll  PREFACE 

Stocking  of  Cornell  University,  for  reading  the 
proof  and  for  valuable  criticisms,  and  to  Prof.  Ed- 
ward H.  Webster,  Chief  of  Dairy  Division,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  and  Dr.  E.  B.  Voorhees, 
Director  of  New  Jersey  Experiment  Stations, 
through  whose  courtesy  the  writer  obtained  a  num- 
ber of  valuable  illustrations. 

Washington,  D.  C,  October  I,  1908. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 

PAGE 

The    Farmer    as    a    Business    Man:     His    Failures    and 

Opportunities I 

PART   I.— THE   SOIL 

I 
A  Debit  and  Credit  Account  with  the  Soil  ...         5 

II 
The  Dairy  Business  in  Relation  to  Soil  Exhaustion       14 

PART  II.— CROPS 

I 
Intensive    System   of    Cropping    .....       21 

II 

Cutting,  Handling  and  Feeding  Forage  Crops   .         .       38 

III 

Top  Dressing  for  Soiling  Crops 40 

IV 
A  Succession  of  Soiling  Crops  for  Fifty  Full-Grown 

Animals 42 

V 
Value    of    Forage    Crops    per    Acre    Compared    with 

Clover   Hay  and  Wheat  Bran       ....       44 

VI 

Succession  of  Soiling  Crops  in  Different  States  .         .       47 

VII 
Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Soiling  ...       51 

VIII 

Soiling  vs.  Silage 53 

PART   III.— THE    DAIRY    HERD 
I 

Selecting  the  Breed  from  a  Business  Standpoint       .       55 


X  CONTENTS 

PAGE 
II 

Milk  Records 79 

III 
The  Yield  of  Milk -      .      91 

IV 
Records    of    Purebred    Cows   of   Special    Importance      94 

V 
Records   of  Grade   Cows       .         .         .         .       ...         .     104 

VI 
Business  Methods  of  Improving  the  Dairy  Herd  by 

Means    of  a   Purebred   Sire    .         .         .         ,         .     in 

PART  IV.— FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

I 
Business    Methods    in    Feeding    .         .         ...     125 

II 
Observations   by   Haecker    .         .         .         .  .     134 

III 
Home-Grown  Dairy  Foods  for  Winter  Use       .         .     144 

PART  V.— PRODUCTS 

I 
Yield   of   Milk   and    Cost   of    Production    .         ,'        .     164 

II 
Sanitary   Methods   in   Milk   Production       .         .         .     171 

III 
Winter    Dairying   Too    Much    Neglected    .         .         .     194 

PART   VI.— SALES 

I 
Business  Methods  in  Retailing  Milk  .         .         .         .198 

II 
Dairy  Accounts — Daily  Record 200 

III 
Advertising 215 

IV 

Business  Accounts  on  a  Dairy  Farm  .         ...         -     219 

Appendix 225 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATES 


Frontispiece 2 

The    Soil 4 

Crops 20 

Harvesting  Alfalfa  in  New  Jersey       ....  26 

Crimson  Clover  in  Corn  at  Last  Cultivation     .         .  27 

Mixed   Grasses — a  Very  Appetizing  Food  for   Stock  27 

Field   of   Cowpeas   in   Alabama    .....  29 

Barnyard  Millet.    Yield  15  Tons  per  Acre  ...  30 

Crop   of   Cowpeas   and   Kaffir   Corn.     Yield   13  Tons  91 

per  Acre .         .         .31 

Field  of  Crimson  Clover       ......  36 

A  Crop  of  Peas  and  Oats 36 

Field    of   Soy    Beans 36 

Experiment  with  Nitrate  of  Soda  on  Wheat     .         .  42 

A   Dairy   Herd 56 

Grand  Champion  Ayrshire  Cow,  National  Dairy  Show, 

Chicago,  1906 60 

First     Prize    Three-Year-Old    Guernsey    Bull,     Pan- 
American    Exposition 61 

Guernsey    Cow,    "Yeksa    Sunbeam."      Record     1,000 

Pounds  Butter  in  One  Year 62 

Holstein  Bull,  "Count  Paul  De  Kol  2d."     First  Prize 

Three-Year-Old,  Pan-American  Exposition  .         .  64 
Holstein   Cow,  "Colontha   4th  Johanna."     Champion 
Butter  Cow  of  the  World,  1,164.63  Pounds  in  a 

Year 65 

A  Good  Type  of  the  Jersey  Breed       ....  68 

A  Typical  Brown  Swiss   Cow       .....  70 

Good  Type  of  Dairy  Shorthorns 74 

Keeping  a  Careful  Record  of  the  Weight  of  Milk       .  85 


Xll  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Curing   Alfalfa    Hay      ....  .124 

The  Dairyman's  Best  Investment — The  Silo       .         .  159 

Dairy  Products 163 

Steps  in  Producing  and  Handling  Clean  Milk  .         .  172 

Steps  in  Producing  and  Handling  Clean  Milk   .         .  173 

Filthy    Stable   and    Cows 174 

Clean   Cows  and  Clean  Stable 175 

Interior  of  a  Well-Lighted  Stable       ....  176 

A  Modern  Stable,  Admitting  an  Abundance  of  Light  177 

Ventilating  by  Means  of  the  Muslin  Curtain     .         .  177 

Manure    Breeds    Flies    and    Contaminates    the    Milk  178 
Milk     House     Connected    with    the     Stable — a     Bad 

Practice 179 

Bottling  Milk 180 

Interior  of  a  Modern  Dairy  House     ....  180 
A  Cheap  but  Practical  Milk  House.     Utensils  Prop- 
erly Cared  for 181 

A   Milk    House  for   the   Small    Farmer       .         .         .  182 

Interior  of  Clean   Stable 183 

Four  Styles  of  Milk  Pails    ...                            .  183 
Dirty  Milk   Deposits — a   Sediment  in  the   Bottom   of 

the  Bottle 184 

Trolley  System  for  Conveying  Milk  from  the  Stable 

to  the  Milk  House 185 

The  Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy  Milking  Machine       .  188 
The   Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy  Milking  Machine   in 

Operation 189 

Delivering  Milk 197 

TEXT  FIGURES 

Showing  How  the  Farm  May  Be  Laid  Out  to  Facili- 
tate the  Keeping  of  Records 23 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


INTRODUCTION 

THE   FARMER  AS  A  BUSINESS   MAN:   HIS 
FAILURES  AND  OPPORTUNITIES 

IN  these  days  of  sharp  competition,  it  is  necessary 
for  the  dairy  farmer  to  make  a  close  study  of  his 
business  if  he  is  to  succeed.  Like  the  manufacturer, 
he  must  know  exactly  what  his  products  cost  him 
and  determine  the  sources  of  his  profits  and 
losses.  In  fact,  he  should  make  a  business  proposi- 
tion of  the  whole  farm.  We  can  point  to  one  here 
and  there  who  has  followed  this  plan  with  wonder- 
ful success,  but  the  condition  of  the  dairy  industry, 
as  seen  on  the  average  farm,  points  to  the  need  of 
better  methods  and  a  more  definite  knowledge  of  the 
business.  In  no  department  connected  with  the 
farm  is  there  more  need  for  absolute  data  than  in 
the  dairy. 

Investigations  of  the  financial  condition  of  pro- 
gressive and  unprogressive  dairymen  indicate  that 
there  is  no  business  which  shows  a  greater  range  of 
profit  than  that  of  dairy  farming.  There  is  need  of 
more  careful  business  methods  in  the  selection  and 
breeding  of  dairy  cows ;  keeping  records  of  the  yield 


2  THE    BUSINESS    OF   DAIRYING 

of  milk;  the  cost  of  rations,  and  the  fertility  ele- 
ments added  to  and  taken  from  the  soil.  Too  much 
money  is  expended  by  the  average  dairy  farmer  for 
commercial  feeding  stuffs,  and  a  large  percentage 
of  the  foods  for  our  dairy  herds  should  be  grown  on 
the  farm.  Many  comparatively  small  farms  would 
be  capable  of  carrying  a  large  herd  if  a  more  inten- 
sive system  of  growing  crops  were  practiced. 

Many  dairy  farmers  fail  to  reap  the  profits  they 
should  because  of  an  inferior  product,  due  to  in- 
sanitary conditions.  A  first-class  product  is  always 
in  demand  at  profitable  prices.  The  dairy  farmer 
should  make  an  effort  to  establish  a  reputation  for 
his  dairy  and  his  product:  first,  by  having  a  good 
product,  and  second,  by  advertising  or  in  some  way 
calling  the  attention  of  the  consumer  to  it.  If  his 
product  is  market  milk,  this  object  may  be  accom- 
plished by  having  a  reputable  veterinarian  examine 
his  cows,  a  bacteriologist  and  chemist  his  product, 
and  some  dairy  inspector  certify  to  the  sanitary 
condition  of  his  stable,  dairy  house,  etc.  If  his  prod- 
uct is  butter,  let  him  make  it  the  best;  have  a 
butter  judge  examine  and  criticize  it,  and  then  sell 
the  butter  under  his  name  or  brand  it  so  it  can 
always  be  identified  in  the  market. 

The  dairy  farmer  to-day  has  abundant  oppor- 
tunity to  practice  the  most  up-to-date  business 
methods.  With  the  telephone  in  his  house  connect- 
ing him  with  all  the  markets  in  the  nearest  city ;  the 
trolley  passing  his  door;  the  rural  delivery  system 
for  collecting  and  distributing  his  mail ;  improved 
roads  enabling  him  to  haul  heavy  loads  with  the 


INTRODUCTION  3 

least  power ;  and,  most  important  of  all,  an  abun- 
dance of  literature  on  all  subjects  pertaining  to  his 
business,  that  he  can  have  almost  for  the  asking, 
certainly  the  dairy  farmer  has  every  opportunity  to 
carry  on  a  profitable  business.  What  he  needs  is 
the  best  knowledge,  then  the  intelligence  to  apply  it. 
One  of  the  reasons  why  dairying  is  not  found 
profitable  by  many  is  that  dairying  is  made  sec- 
ondary to  other  farm  wrork  and  is  not  handled  in  a 
business  way.  With  a  small  number  of  cows  and  a 
small  product  to  dispose  of,  the  small  dairyman  doe* 
not  and  cannot  afford  to  equip  his  place  with  the 
necessary  apparatus  for  producing  a  good  product. 
A  dairyman  under  these  circumstances  should  do 
one  of  two  things,  either  enlarge  his  dairy  work  and 
conduct  it  as  a  business,  or  give  it  up  altogether  and 
follow  some  other  line  of  work.  With  more  strict 
laws  regarding  the  methods  of  producing  and  hand- 
ling milk,  and  with  the  increased  use  of  the  milk- 
ing machine,  the  tendency  in  the  future  will  be  to 
increase  the  number  of  large  dairies  and  reduce  the 
number  of  small  ones. 


PART  I— THE  SOIL 


CHAPTER  I 

A  DEBIT  AND  CREDIT  ACCOUNT  WITH 
THE  SOIL 

THE  first  consideration  in  dairy  farming  is  nat- 
urally the  soil.  This  is  an  important  part  of  the 
dairyman's  capital  and  perhaps  shows  the  effects  of 
good  business  methods  more  strikingly  than  any 
other  branch  of  his  work.  It  is  possible  to  keep  a 
debit  and  credit  account  with  the  soil  and  thus  show 
the  condition  of  each  acre  of  the  farm  from  the 
standpoint  of  fertility  and  the  amount  of  the  crops 
removed  from  time  to  time. 

We  will  take  one  acre  of  land  for  an  illustration 
and  this  will  be  considered  the  same  as  a  bank ;  that 
is,  our  capital  stock  will  represent  the  constituents 
in  the  soil,  our  deposits  the  fertility  elements  applied 
to  the  soil,  our  expenditures  the  fertility  elements 
removed  from  the  soil  in  the  crops  taken  off. 

Capital,  the  soil.— We  will  consider  first  our  cap- 
ital. What  does  our  bank  contain?  We  may  make 
a  chemical  analysis  of  the  soil,  but  this  will  not  give 
us  an  accurate  value  of  it,  since  a  part  of  the  plant 
food  is  not  available,  and  some  of  the  power  of  the 
plant  to  secure  that  which  is  available  depends  upon 


6  THE    BUSINESS   OF    DAIRYING 

many  conditions,  such  as  the  proper  preparation  of 
the  land,  the  kind  of  crops  raised,  the  relative 
amounts  of  the  various  required  constituents  and 
the  amount  of  moisture  present.  A  chemical  anal- 
ysis, however,  will  give  us  some  idea  of  the  compo- 
sition and  value  of  our  soil.  The  analyses  of  soils 
made  by  reliable  chemists  show  that  even  the  poorer 
soils  have  an  abundance  of  plant  food  for  several 
crops,  while  the  richer  soils  in  some  cases  have 
sufficient  for  many  years.  Since  the  soil  and  subsoil 
contain  such  stores  of  fertility  and  since  such  deep- 
rooted  plants  as  clovers  and  alfalfa  bring  to  the  sur- 
face abundant  quantities  of  nitrogen  with  some  min- 
eral matter,  and  since  many  fields  receive  applica- 
tions of  farm  manure  from  time  to  time,  there  must 
be  some  cause  tending  to  restrict  production.  The 
principal  causes  of  low  yields  of  farm  crops  are 
found  in  imperfect  preparation  of  the  soil  and  poor 
tillage.  As  a  result  there  is  a  lack  of  available  plant 
food  and  insufficient  moisture  sometimes  during 
growth.  We  need  to  better  appreciate  and  utilize 
nature's  storehouse. 

Deposits. — Last  year's  plant  food  will  not  do  for 
this  year's  any  more  than  last  year's  plowing.  Grow- 
ing crops  must  have  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  as  food,  which  eventually  becomes  a  part  of 
the  natural  plant.  This  fixed  in  mind,  the  intelligent 
handling  of  the  fertilizing  problem  becomes  a  simple 
matter.  We  will  regard  the  soil,  then,  as  a  bank  in 
which  the  forms  of  plant  food  are  deposited  as  in- 
comes or  fertilizers  and  drawn  out  in  the  form  of 
salable  crops.  On  the  average  soil,  farm-produced 


A  DEBIT   AND    CREDIT   ACCOUNT  7 

manures  are  used  to  the  best  advantage  when  sup- 
plemented with  commercial  fertilizers  containing 
available  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Good  authori- 
ties recommend  that  for  every  ton  of  stable  manure 
applied,  50  to  100  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and 
25  to  50  pounds  of  high-grade  muriate  or  sulphate 
of  potash  be  used. 

Home  mixing  of  fertilizers. — The  farmer  should 
mix  his  own  fertilizers — that  is,  he  should  buy  ithe 
separate  ingredients  and  put  them  together  accord- 
ing to  the  formulas  desired.  In  doing  this  he  yvill 
learn  what  the  different  forms  of  plant  food  are, 
what  they  are  valuable  for  and  from  what  source 
they  can  be  obtained.  He  will  become  to  some  ex- 
tent an  investigator  and  will  of  necessity  take  a 
deeper  interest  in  his  work.  In  purchasing  the  sep- 
arate ingredients  the  object  sought  should  be  to 
secure  as  much  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
in  available  form  as  possible  for  $i,  instead  of!  as 
many  pounds  of  fertilizer  as  possible  regardless!  of 
the  amount  of  plant  food  contained  in  them.  The 
quality  and  cost  of  home  mixtures  analyzed  by  the 
experiment  stations  indicate  very  clearly  the  advan- 
tage of  this  method  of  purchase.  When  the  cost 
of  plant  food  purchased  in  this  way  is  compared 
with  the  average  cost  of  that  in  the  regular  brands, 
there  is  frequently  shown  a  saving  of  30  per  cent. 

Expenditures. — The  relation  of  deposits  or  fer- 
tility ingredients  to  expenditures  can  perhaps  best 
be  illustrated  by  a  balance  sheet  from  an  acre  of 
land  at  the  New  Jersey  Agricultural  College  Farm, 
where  an  exact  record  of  76  acres  was  kept  by  the 


8 


THE   BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


BALANCE  SHEET  FOR  ONE  ACRE  OF  LAND 

PLOT  16 
Record  for  the  Years  1837,  1898,  1899 


Date 


Manures,  Fertilizers,  Labor,  and  Seed 


Cost 


Amount  Applied 


Nitro- 
gen 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 


April 


1897. 
To  Fertilizer— 

75  Ibs.  ground  bone  

75  Ibs.  muriate  of  potash. 
75  Ibs.  acid  phosphate  


$0  93 

1  46 

38 


21 

July  4-27 
Oct.     12 


To  Labor,  Seed,  etc.— 

Plowing,  5  hours $1  50 

Harvesting,  rolling,  etc.,  3  hrs.       90 

Planting  corn,  1  hour $0.30 

Sowing  fert.,  1  hour 10 


10  qts.  Southern  white  corn 

Cultivating.  6  hours $1  80 

12  Ibs.  crimson  clover 72 

Plowing,  harAresting,  rolling,  10  hrs 

2  bu.  rye,  at  55  cents $1  10 

Drilling,  1  hour 30 


Total. 


2.40 


2  52 

3  00 


1  40 


Lbs. 

2.97 


To  Labor  and  Seed- 
Harrowing,  4  hours 1  20 

Rolling.  1  hour 30 

Carting  weeds,  1  hour 20 

Man    1  hour 20 

12  Ibs.  crimson  clover 72 

Total $539         2.97 

1898. 

To  Fertilizer- 
June    1        6.7  tons  manure $1005      42.88 

To  Labor  and  Seed— 

10  Plowing,  9  hours $2  70 

11  Harvesting,  rolling,  planting,  9  hrs..  2  70 
12  quarts  corn 25 

22        Cultivating.  1V2  hours 45 

22        Sowing  crimson  clover,  1  hour 20 

12  Ibs.  crimson  clover  seed 72 

Total $1707       42.88 

1899* 

To  Fertilizer- 
June    1        6.1  tons  manure $915      39.04 

21        50  Ibs.  acid   phosphate   23 

21        25  Ibs.  ground   bone    

21        25  Ibs.  muriate  of  potash 50 


$20  17 


.90       56.57 


A  DEBIT   AND   CREDIT    ACCOUNT 


BALANCE  SHEET  FOR  ONE  ACRE  OF  LAND 

PLOT  16 
Record  for  the  Years  1897,  1898,  1899,  1900,  1901 


Cr. 


Date 

Crops  Grown 

Yield 

Value 

Amount  Removed 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

July 

June 
Aug. 

May 
Sept. 

1897. 
By  corn  fodder,  at  $3.00  per  ton... 

Total                            

Tons 
10.74 

32.22 

Lbs. 
58.00 

Lbs. 
32.22 

Lbs. 

70.88 

10.74 

11.00 
8.00 

32  22 

38.50 
24.00 

58.00 

110.00 
43.20 

32.22 

28.60 
24.00 

70.88 

85.80 
52.80 

1808. 
By  crimson  clover,  at  $3.50  

By  8.00  tons  corn  fodder,  at  $3.00.. 
Total 

19.00 

5.00 
16.20 

62.50 

17.50 
48.60 

153.20 

50.00 

87.48 

52.60 

13.00 
48.60 

138.60 

39.00 
109.  92 

1899. 
By  crimson  clover,  at  $3.50  

By  16.20  tons  corn  fodder,  at  $3.00. 
Total  

21.20 

66.10 

137.48 

61.60 

148.92 

10 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


BALANCE  SHEET  FOR  ONE  ACRE  OF  LAND 

(Continued) 

PLOT  16 
Record  for  the  Years  1900,  1901 


Dr. 


Date 

Manures,  Fertilizers,  Labor,  and  Seed 

Cost 

Amount  Applied 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

May  to 
Sept. 

May   25 
to 
May   28 
June  19 
Sept.  22 

Feb. 
April 

July 

April   2 
9 

July  9-10 
Sept.  11 

1900 
To  Fertilizer— 
100  Ibs.  muriate  of  potash...,  

$2  10 
60 
63 
1  03 
85 

2  70 

40 
75 
60 

3  00 
1  80 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
55.16 

100  Ibs   acid  phosphate  

20.33 

50  Ibs.  ground  bone  

1.72 
7.93 
7.16 

12.27 

50  Ibs.  nitrate  of  soda... 

60  Ibs.  dried  blood  

.62 

To  Labor  and  Seed- 
Plowing  and  fitting  land,  9  hours  
6  Qts.  Stowell's  evergreen  corn  

Planting  and  sowing  fert. 

Cultivating,  2  hours  

Plowing,  etc.,  9  hours  $2  70 

Sowing  fert.   and  grass  seed..       30 

15  Ibs.  Mammouth  red  clover 

Total...  

$14  46 

16.81 

33.22 

55.16 

1901. 
To  Fertilizer— 
7.9  tons   manure 

$11  85 

2  55 
33 

2  70 
1  93 
6  20 

3  00 
4  00 

50.56 

1.72 
2.06 

52.14 

12.27 
14.72 

80.58 

55.16 
63.43 

100  Ibs.  muriate  potash                  $2  00 

50  Ibs.  bone                                           55 

60  Ibs.  ground  bone  

To  Labor  and  Seed- 
Plowing,  harvesting,  drilling,  9  hrs. 
2  bu.  oats  $064 

1%  bu.  cowpeas  1  29 

Harvesting  and  rolling,  13  hrs..  $3  90 
1.15  Ibs.  mur.  potash                       2  30 

16  qts.  kafflr  corn                           $0  50 

32  qts.  cowpeas  2  50 

Preparing  ground,  11  hours....  $3  30 
7  Ibs.  Essex  rape.  .                            70 

Total  

$32  56 

54.34 

79.13 

199.17 

Total,  5  years  

$89  65 

156  90 

244.25 

440.05 

A  DEBIT   AND    CREDIT   ACCOUNT 


BALANCE  SHEET  FOR  ONE  ACRE  OF  LAND 

PLOT  16 
Kecord  for  Years  1900,  1901 


Cr. 


Date 

Crops  Grown 

Value 

Amount  Removed 

Yield 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

May 
Sept. 

July    1 
Sept.    1 

1900. 
By  rye  fodder    at  $3  00         

Tons 
4.10 

5.90 

$ 
12.30 

17.70 

Lbs. 
33.62 

31.86 

Xbs. 
21.30 

17.70 

Lbs. 
54.94 

38.94 

By  sweet  corn   at  $3  00 

•    Total  

10.00 

6.20 
12.20 

30.00 

21.70 
42.70 

65.48 

50.84 
87.60 

39.00 

17.36 
30.38 

93.88 

58.28 
125.66 

1901, 
By  oats  and  peas    at  $3  50 

By  cowpeas,  and  kaffir  corn,  at  $3.50. 
Total 

18.40 

14.40 

138.44 

47.74 

183.94 

Total   5  years            

79.34 

255.22 

552.60 

233.16 

636.22 

165.57 

—395.70 

+  31.26 

196  17 

NOTE— The   dairyman  who  wishes  to  calculate  the  fertility  of  his  crops  is  referred 
to  table  in  the  appendix. 


12  THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

writer  for  seven  years.  The  records  include  the 
manures  and  fertilizers  applied  to  each  crop  and  the 
fertility  elements  removed  in  the  crops.  A  record 
is  also  shown  of  the  cost  of  labor  and  seed,  so  that  it 
is  an  easy  matter  not  only  to  draw  a  balance  with 
reference  to  the  fertility  elements,  but  to  show  the 
cost  of  producing  the  crop  up  to  the  time  of  harvest- 
ing. 

A  study  of  the  above  account  with  an  acre  of 
ground  for  a  period  of  five  years  shows  that  fertility 
elements  were  applied  amounting  to  156.9  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  244.25  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and 
440.05  pounds  of  potash.  The  fertility  elements 
removed  amounted  to  552.6  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
233.16  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  636.22  pounds 
of  potash.  Balancing  the  account  by  subtracting  the 
amount  removed  from  the  amount  applied  we  find 
that  395.70  pounds  more  nitrogen  has  been  taken  off 
in  crops  than  has  been  applied  in  manures  and 
fertilizers.  The  question  arises,  where  did  this 
nitrogen  come  from.  It  is  not  very  probable  that 
there  was  this  amount  of  available  reserve  nitrogen 
in  the  soil.  It  is  easily  explained,  however,  when 
we  consider  the  fact  that  such  crops  as  crimson 
clover,  Canada  field  peas  and  cowpeas,  which  were 
grown  on  this  plot,  take  free  nitrogen  from  the  air 
during  growth.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that 
more  nitrogen  is  removed  in  the  crops  than  was  ap- 
plied to  the  soil.  Again,  referring  to  the  phosphoric 
acid,  we  find  that  31.26  pounds  more  has  been 
applied  than  removed  in  the  crop,  so  that  an  excess 
remains  in  the  soil.  Incaseof  the  potash  I96.i7pounds 


OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


BIT  AND   CREDIT  ACCOUNT  13 

more  were  removed  than  applied  in  the  manures  and 
fertilizers,  so  that  we  have  a  deficiency  of  this  ele- 
ment in  the  soil. 

Future  treatment.  —  Considering  all  these  condi- 
tions, how  shall  this  soil  be  treated  the  next  season? 
Taking  it  for  granted  that  the  soil  was  normal  at 
the  start,  we  should  continue  to  grow  some  legumi- 
nous crop  which  will  utilize  the  free  nitrogen  of  the 
air  and  apply  only  such  amounts  of  nitrogen  as  are 
necessary  to  give  leguminous  crops  a  start  and  to 
properly  fertilize  grains  and  such  crops  as  cannot 
take  free  nitrogen  from  the  air.  As  to  phosphoric 
acid,  the  balance  shows  an  excess  in  the  soil  and  we 
will  only  need  to  apply  about  the  amount  that  the 
crop  naturally  requires.  With  the  potash,  however, 
the  balance  shows  a  deficiency  in  the  soil  and  the 
application  for  the  next  crop  should  be  a  liberal  one. 

Financial  balance.  —  A  nominal  value  has  been 
placed  on  the  crops  in  order  to  show  a  financial  bal- 
ance and  to  show  whether  the  crops  have  really  been 
worth  more  than  the  expense  incurred  in  growing 
them.  Interest,  taxes,  and  insurance  are  not  in- 
cluded. The  cost  of  harvesting  is  also  omitted,  the 
value  being  assigned  to  the  standing  crops. 

On  this  basis  we  have  a  balance  for  the  five  years 
(difference  between  the  cost  of  production  and  the 
value  of  the  crop)  of  $165.57  or  $33-IJ  Per  year. 
A  fairly  good  remuneration.  It  should  be  stated, 
however,  that  the  soil  was  very  ordinary  in  fertility 
and  that  the  year  before  these  records  began  (1896) 
the  plot  would  not  produce  over  pne-half  ton  of  hay 
to  the  acre.  It  may  appear  to  some,  also,  that  th« 


14  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

value  of  the  crops  has  been  rated  a  little  high,  but 
they  were  cut  when  in  prime  condition  for  feeding 
and  utilized,  in  some  instances,  at  the  season  of  the 
year  when  no  other  crops  were  available. 

CHAPTER  II 

THE   DAIRY   BUSINESS   IN   RELATION   TO 
SOIL  EXHAUSTION 

THE  keeping  of  accurate  records  of  all  fertility 
elements  applied  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  manures 
and  fertilizers  and  the  amount  removed  in  farm 
crops,  as  we  have  seen,  is  an  important  matter.  We 
will  now  look  at  the  subject  of  the  fertility  of  the 
dairy  farm  from  a  wider  viewpoint ;  and  endeavor  to 
show  that  a  dairy  farm,  in  selling  market  milk  and 
using  good  business  methods  in  its  operations,  in- 
cluding the  feeding  of  balanced  rations  and  growing 
a  large  percentage  of  the  food  stuffs  on  the  farm, 
will  tend  to  grow  richer  instead  of  poorer  in  plant 
food.  The  records  used  for  this  purpose  were  kept 
by  the  writer  and  cover  a  period  of  seven  years  on 
a  farm  having  about  76  acres  under  cultivation  and 
a  herd  of  30  to  40  milking  cows. 

The  following  tabulation  shows  the  amount  of 
fertilizing  elements  contained  in  the  feeds  purchased 
and  in  the  milk  produced  by  the  herd.  There  is 
shown  to  be  a  decided  gain  to  the  farm  in  all  the 
elements  of  fertility  each  year.  The  total  gain  is 
equivalent  in  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  to  that 
contained  respectively  in  27.6  tons  of  nitrate  of  soda, 
29.6  tons  of  acid  phosphate  and  in  potash  to  that 


A  DEBIT  AND   CREDIT   ACCOUNT 


TH 

O       00       O           • 
CO        S        b-        ift 
XI        P        <* 

1-3          <-" 

1     S     § 

§ 

g 

o 

TH 

s 

r- 

' 

1 

j§  H  !  §  1  S 

3 

1       a 

g 

1 

e> 

9 

.   i 

rS 

rt 

' 

1 

* 

«,        S?        §        9        S 

^     oo      o>      ci 

g          :   » 

: 

1 

eo 
t» 

g 

to 

3 

: 

: 

a 

i-i 

r- 

1 

1 

t—        O         CO         rH 

JTTTa 

s 

1         1 

S 

i 

c^ 

i 

rH 

i 

r- 

, 

i 

£ 

1 

»  §  $  s  e 

fa         t>        00         rH         CO 

:         § 

% 

1 

0 

8 

fH~ 

ir 

t~ 

S  8  s  1  S 

l 

g 

S 

j 

s 

^ 

l 

r- 

f 

8 

CC       ^       O       O       fr- 

•     •     • 

* 

1 

1 

5 

s 

M 

' 

§ 

§    S    S    S     : 

t-      in      e* 

£ 

^ 

s 

O        M<        t-        rH 

H    ^    ^           : 

Ot        i-<        O» 

| 

_ 

S    8    8    §    8    5 

8          5 

8 

g 

s 

O       IM'       oJ       <o       i-I       r- 

H     -^     -1 

eo               e* 

C* 

S 

g 

§    8    §    S    g 

S          :    S 

i 

1 

^  &  s  t- 

•41                       .        r- 

• 

s 

n 

0> 

§  s  e  s  s 

S                    g 

8 

,5 

o 
• 

S 

O         Ifl        CO         t^         rH 

1-H                        C-i 

*< 

s 

<5 

QO 

g    S    S    8    S 

:         & 

S 

c^_ 

S 

o     ••*     o     10     eo 

H     '       ^ 

:         ^ 

g 

1 

«     o     10     o     m 

JH          IB         r-l          CO          «*l 

O      <N      oo      eo      •* 

§§ 

t- 

5 

H     -1 
§    5    S    S    S 

8 

oo 

O      o>      o»      to      eo 

H 

:      :      :      : 

g 

V. 

z 
s 

>> 

J 

I 

i 

0 

5 

5 

id 

4 

Wheat  Bran  
Dried  Brewers'  Grain 
Corn  Meal  
Linseed  Meal  
Mult  Snronts... 

Cottonseed  Meal  
Gluten  Meal  
Rice  Meal  
Pea  Meal  .  . 

Buckwheat  Feed  

a 

c 
'« 
C 

t. 
c 

1 

M 

i 

a 

i 

E 

1 

c 

4- 

_c 
C 

• 

9 

1 

a 
a 

rt 
tc 

"cS 

1 

i6 


THE   BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


•      co      oo      e*        •        •      co 

O!        t-        Cv»         rH  •  •        O 

.0         **  •         rH 


(M         CO        C>J 


g    5 


L-        O 

1-1          -»< 


O 
•        O*  • 


- 


./Oi 

^rH 
,Q         Oi 


S    S    1 


jj  8  S 


A   DEBIT   AND    CREDIT   ACCOUNT  17 

contained  in  2.47  tons  high-grade  muriate  of  potash. 
It  is  not  affirmed  that  the  constituents  contained  in 
the  manure  are  equal  in  agricultural  value  to  those 
Contained  in  the  fertilizers  mentioned,  or  that  even 
under  the  best  conditons  of  care  and  application, 
they  could  not  be  used  by  the  plants,  but,  because 
the  manure  contains  all  the  constituents  and  is  well 
adapted  for  most  crops,  the  general  farmer  is,  as  a 
rule,  able  to  get  as  good  returns  from  it  in  propor- 
tion to  constituents  contained  as  from  products  con- 
taining the  same  constituents  in  more  available  forms. 

The  tabulation  shows,  further,  that  if  all  the  milk 
sold  from  the  farm  was  obtainecf  from  foods  grown 
on  the  farm,  the  exhaustion  of  nitrogen  would  be  in 
greater  proportion  than  the  mineral  elements,  and 
that  when  this  is  the  practice  it  is  necessary  to  apply 
nitrogenous  fertilizers  in  order  to  maintain  the  fer- 
tility. If  manure  is  well  cared  for  and  used  properly, 
it  is  more  economical  to  purchase  the  nitrogen  in 
the  form  of  feeding  stuffs,  whose  whole  cost  is 
returned  in  the  increased  product  resulting  from 
the  use  of  well-balanced  rations. 

Business  methods  in  maintaining  fertility. — Any 
system  of  farming  must  result  in  the  removal  of 
some  of  the  elements  of  fertility  from  the  soil,  but 
dairy  farming  properly  conducted  results  in  the 
removal  of  a  minimum  rather  than  a  maximum  of 
these  elements ;  provides  for  the  physical  and  chemi- 
cal character  of  soils  and  is  constructive  rather 
than  destructive  in  its  effects. 

It  is  the  dairy  farmer's  business  to  so  utilize  his 
crops  as  to  remove  from  the  farm  only  the  minimum 


l8  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

amount  of  fertility  elements  in  the  finished  product. 
For  example,  experiments  have  shown  that  the  out- 
go of  fertilizing  value  in  different  dairy  products 
from  one  cow  in  one  year  amounts,  where  butter  is 
sold  to  .059,  where  cream  is  sold  to  $1.11;  where 
cheese  is  sold  to  $4.34;  and  where  milk  is  sold  to 
$6.68.  This  does  not  mean  that  it  is  always  more 
profitable  from  a  fertility  standpoint  for  a  dairyman 
to  sell  butter  than  milk — the  price  received  for  these 
products  must  determine  which  is  the  most  profit- 
able. But  where  milk  is  sold,  the  dairyman  should 
see  to  it  that  the  fertilizing  elements  removed  from 
the  farm  through  this  channel  are  restored  either  by 
the  purchase  of  commercial  feeding  stuffs  to  bal- 
ance the  rations  or  by  direct  purchase  of  manures 
or  commercial  fertilizers.  The  former  method  will 
usually  prove  the  more  profitable,  as  it  serves  the 
double  purpose  of  feeding  the  stock  and  eventually 
restoring  fertility  to  the  soil. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  fertility  in  100  acres 
of  virgin  soil  is  worth  $10,000;  that  the  wheat  crop 
would  remove  from  100  acres  in  twenty  years,  $10,- 
ooo  worth  of  fertility;  and  that  a  herd  of  eighteen 
cows  in  twenty  years  would  restore  $10,000  worth 
of  fertility  to  100  acres.  This  herd  of  cows  would 
not  only  support  the  crops  grown  to  feed  them- 
selves, but  additional  fields  of  twenty  acres  of  corn, 
and  14  acres  of  wheat  where  milk  is  sold ;  24  acres 
of  corn  and  18  acres  of  wheat  where  cheese  is  sold ; 
33  acres  of  corn  and  23  acres  of  wheat  where  cream 
is  sold,  and  35  acres  of  corn  and  24  acres  of  wheat 
where  butter  is  sold. 


A  DEBIT   AND   CREDIT   ACCOUNT  IQ 

To  illustrate  further  how  dairying,  properly  con- 
ducted, will  preserve  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  land 
on  the  Pacific  Coast  reduced  to  such  poverty  by  the 
continual  raising  of  wheat  that  it  produced  only 
eight  or  nine  bushels  to  the  acre  has  been  so  restored 
by  dairying  that  it  now  produces  from  20  to  40 
bushels  and  the  land  has  doubled  in  value.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  thousands  of  acres  of  land 
which  have  been  continuously  planted  to  corn  until 
it  failed  to  return  a  profit.  Such  farmers  have  had 
to  return  to  dairying  and  the  keeping  of  live  stock  to 
restore  the  fertility  to  the  soil. 

Continuous  growing  of  corn  or  wheat  is  like 
drawing  the  principal  deposited  in  the  bank  until 
all  is  gone,  while  dairying  permits  a  man  to  live  on 
the  interest.  The  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  and 
the  turning  under  of  green  crops  may  be  used  in 
conjunction  with  dairying  for  maintaining  equilib- 
rium in  fertility,  but  the  dairy  cow  will  do  the  work 
the  cheapest.  When  the  crops  grown  on  the  farm 
are  fed  to  live  stock  and  the  fertilizer  resulting  is  put 
back  on  the  land,  it  is  possible  to  restore  to  the  land 
80  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  fertilizing  elements 
that  were  taken  from  it.  The  growing  of  legu- 
minous crops  on  the  farm  to  be  fed  to  the  dairy 
cows  tends  to  increase  the  nitrogen  content  of  the 
soil,  since  these  crops  deposit  more  nitrogen  in  the 
soil  than  is  sold  in  the  milk  produced  by  feeding 
them.  This  matter  of  maintaining  soil  fertility  is 
one  of  the  most  important  agricultural  questions  in 
this  country. 


PART  II— CROPS 


CHAPTER  I 
INTENSIVE  SYSTEM  OF  CROPPING 

THE  losses  sustained  by  a  dairyman  by  reason  of 
scanty  pastures  during  summer  droughts  are  very 
great.  The  dairy  herd  having  once  fallen  in  yield 
of  milk  for  any  length  of  time  will  rarely  recover 
and  return  to  its  normal  flow.  The  dairyman's 
profits  are  not  only  reduced  but  the  dealer  or  con- 
sumer to  whom  he  supplies  milk  or  butter  is  disap- 
pointed and  there  is  trouble  all  along  the  line.  It 
is  particularly  important  that  the  dairyman  who 
retails  his  milk  have  a  constant  supply  from  day  to 
day  and  from  month  to  month.  The  usual  and  ordi- 
nary losses  and  difficulties  could  largely  be  over- 
come by  what  is  known  as  the  intensive  system  of 
dairy  farming  or  the  soiling  system.  This  consists 
in  feeding  farm  animals  a  succession  of  green  forage 
crops  in  the  field  or  stable  during  the  summer  period 
instead  of  allowing  them  to  run  on  pasture. 

Soiling  is  especially  adapted  to  localities  where 
the  value  of  land  is  high  and  pasture  areas  are 
limited.  It  is  adapted  to  steers  as  well  as  to  dairy 
cows.  The  use  of  the  silo  in  summer  feeding  is  tak- 
ing the  place  of  soiling  to  some  extent,  as  it  is  used 


22  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

for  supplementary  feed  to  scant  pastures  during 
summer  droughts. 

The  production  of  soiling  crops  results  in  inten- 
sive methods  of  farming,  as  not  only  large  yields 
are  produced  from  single  crops,  but  two  and  some- 
times three  crops  are  grown  upon  an  acre  the  same 
season.  (See  page  37.)  This  necessitates  heavy 
applications  of  manure  and  fertilizers  in  order  to 
maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Green  manuring  is 
also  practiced  in  connection  with  soiling  to  advan- 
tage. 

Laying  out  the  farm  for  soiling. — When  forage 
crops  are  depended  upon  entirely  as  food  for  the 
dairy  herd  in  summer,  it  is  a  desirable  plan  to  lay 
out  the  farm  on  paper  in  one  or  two  acre  plots 
(See  page  23),  decide  what  crops  should  be  grown, 
amount  and  kind  of  fertilizer  to  be  applied, 
and  figure  how  much  forage  can  be  secured  from 
each  acre,  allowing  for  droughts  and  other  unfavor- 
able conditions.  He  can  then  calculate  the  number 
of  cows  his  farm  will  carry  through  the  summer. 

It  may  seem,  at  first,  a  difficult  matter  to  do  this, 
but  by  studying  thoroughly  the  productive  capacity 
of  the  farm  for  a  number  of  years  the  calculation  can 
be  made  almost  to  a  nicety.  This  calculation  can 
be  made  during  the  winter,  when  the  dairyman  is 
less  busy  with  the  field  work.  The  seed  and  the 
fertilizer  need  to  be  ordered,  tools  put  in  repair,  and 
everything  made  ready  for  the  spring  work.  It  has 
been  my  experience  that  land  devoted  entirely  to 
forage  crops  will  carry  three  cows  per  acre  for  six 
months  from  May  ist  to  November  ist. 


INTENSIVE    SYSTEM    OF   CROPPING 


24  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

The  dairyman  should,  as  far  as  possible,  select 
crops  that  can  be  successfully  grown  on  his  farm 
and  should  avoid  those  which  might  contribute  an 
undesirable  flavor  to  his  dairy  products,  as,  for 
example :  rape,  turnips,  etc. 

Partial  soiling. — This  consists  in  feeding  forage 
crops  supplementary  to  pasturage  or  to  other  foods 
at  a  time  when  pastures  furnish  an  insufficient  sup- 
ply. The  system  is  a  common  practice  with  many 
farmers  and  aids  very  materially  in  keeping  the 
milk  flow  uniform  throughout  the  summer  months. 

Whether  complete  or  partial  soiling  is  practiced, 
a  succession  of  crops  must  be  provided  which  will 
furnish  a  continuous  supply  of  forage  at  the  proper 
stage  of  growth  for  feeding  as  the  season  advances, 
or  say  from  May  1st  to  November  ist.  It  is  a  com- 
mon practice  among  progressive  dairymen  to  keep 
the  cows  in  a  darkened  stable  during  the  day  when 
the  pastures  are  dried  up  and  the  cows  annoyed  by 
the  heat  and  flies.  They  are  fed  forage  and  some 
dry  coarse  foods  and  grain,  and  turned  out  at  night. 

Crops  for  soiling. — As  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this 
book  to  discuss  crops  except  in  so  far  as  they  relate 
to  business  methods  in  dairy  farming,  it  will  suffice 
to  mention  here  only  a  few  of  the  more  important 
of  the  great  variety  of  crops  which  have  been  recom- 
mended for  soiling. 

The  following  succession  was  used  by  the  author 
in  New  Jersey  and  would  be  applicable  to  other  of 
the  Middle  Atlantic  and  the  Central  States: 

Rye. — The  herd  was  fed  a  half  ration  of  green  rye 
about  May  ist,  and  in  the  course  of  a  week  a  full 


INTENSIVE   SYSTEM  OF   CROPPING  2$ 

ration  was  supplied  with  the  exception  of  a  small 
amount  of  dry  roughage  once  a  day,  consisting  of 
hay  or  corn  fodder.  A  cow  weighing  1,000  pounds 
will  ordinarily  consume  from  60  to  70  pounds  of 
the  average  forage  crop  a  day  in  addition  to 
a  small  amount  of  dry  fodder  and  from  six 
to  eight  pounds  of  fine  feeds.  While  the  food 
value  of  rye  is  not  as  great  as  some  of  the  crops 
which  follow,  it  is  a  valuable  food  for  the  reason  that 
it  comes  at  a  time  when  no  other  crop  is  available. 

Wheat  immediately  follows  rye,  and  while  the 
yield  is  not  usually  as  great  as  that  obtained  from 
the  former  crop,  it  is  very  palatable,  and  owing  to 
its  larger  proportion  of  leaf  growth  it  remains  suc- 
culent for  a  longer  time  and  has  proven  an  excellent 
forage  for  the  middle  of  May. 

Alfalfa  without  question  is  the  best  perennial 
crop.  It  is  ready  for  cutting  shortly  after  the  middle 
of  May,  and  a  yield  of  20  tons  of  green  forage 
per  acre  during  a  season  is  not  uncommon.  An 
average  of  22  tons  per  acre  annually  for  the 
four  years  following  seeding  has  been  secured, 
the  greatest  annual  yield  being  26  tons  per 
acre  from  five  cuttings.  Owing  to  its  high  content 
of  protein  (the  hay  nearly  equaling  that  of  wheat 
bran)  it  serves  an  excellent  purpose  on  a  dairy  farm 
in  materially  reducing  the  need  for  purchased  feeds, 
whether  the  crop  is  fed  as  green  forage  or  hay. 

Crimson  clover  is  one  of  the  most  useful  crops 
from  the  standpoint  of  yield,  composition,  cost,  and 
the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  secured.  It  may 
serve  as  a  pasture  where  soiling  is  not  practiced,  or 


INTENSIVE   SYSTEM   OF   CROPPING  27 

be  made  into  hay  if  cut  when  in  early  bloom.  The 
crop  is  usually  in  the  best  condition  for  forage  about 
the  first  of  June. 


CRIMSON   CLOVER   SOWN   IN   CORN   AT  LAST  CULTIVATION 


MIXED    GRASSES— A    VERY    APPETIZING    FOOD    FOR    STOCK 


28  THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

Mixed  grasses. — Following  crimson  clover  a  mix- 
ture of  red  and  alsike  ^clover,  timothy  (and  some- 
times red-top  added)  has  been  used  for  feeding  with 
good  results  early  in  June.  This  combination 
affords  a  palatable  forage  and  may  be  fed  from  ten 
days  to  three  weeks,  depending  upon  the  character 
of  the  mixture.  There  is  probably  no  forage  crop 
that  is  relished  more  by  dairy  animals  than  this  mix- 
ture of  grasses  and  clovers,  if  cut  at  the  proper  time. 

Peas  and  oats. — This  mixture  affords  a  very 
serviceable  crop  and  very  rarely  fails  to  give  a  good 
yield  when  planted  early.  It  supplies  forage  when 
other  crops  are  not  usually  available,  unless  large 
quantities  of  alfalfa  are  sown,  thus  providing  a 
second  cutting  at  this  time.  It  may  be  seeded  at  in- 
tervals ranging  from  a  week  to  ten  days,  the  crops 
being  harvested  in  the  order  of  their  maturity.  This 
mixture  also  makes  excellent  hay,  although  more 
difficult  to  secure  than  ordinary  grasses.  Like 
alfalfa  and  crimson  clover,  it  needs  to  be  cured  in 
windrows  or  small  cocks  for  best  results,  and  when 
so  handled  it  is  of  great  value  as  a  milk  producer. 
Vetch  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of  peas,  with 
equally  good  results. 

Indian  corn. — For  general  forage  purposes  no  an- 
nual crop  has  been  found  superior  to  Indian  corn. 
If  quick  curing  varieties  are  grown,  two  crops  may 
be  obtained  in  one  season  from  the  same  area.  The 
thoroughbred  White  Flint  is  particularly  valuable 
for  forage  purposes.  It  grows  very  rapidly  and 
branches  from  the  base,  thus  producing  from  three 
to  five  stalks  from  a  single  kernel.  This  variety  also 


INTENSIVE   SYSTEM   OF   CROPPING  2Q 

has  a  large  proportion  of  leaf  and  is  very  succulent. 
Cows  never  refuse  Indian  corn  when  cut  green,  and 
relish  it  particularly  at  the  stage  when  the  ears  are 
developing. 

Cowpeas  and  soy  beans. — These  crops  possess 
many  desirable  characteristics  as  forage  and  are 
very  valuable  for  midsummer  feeding.  They  stand 
the  drought  well  and  will  thrive  on  light,  poor  soil  if 


FIELD  OF  COWPEAS   IN  ALABAMA 

an  abundance  of  mineral  elements  are  provided. 
They  also  remain  in  condition  for  feeding  for  a 
longer  time  than  most  crops.  Either  of  these  crops 
may  follow  peas  and  oats  to  good  advantage.  Aside 
from  forage,  they  are  excellent  for  green  manuring. 
As  to  varieties  of  cowpeas,  the  Red  Ripper  is  one 
of  the  best  late  varieties  and  the  Southdown  Black 


30  THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

and  Taylor  are  among  the  best  for  earlier  seeding. 
The  Eureka  and  Green  soy  beans  are  among  the 
most  profitable  kinds. 

Millets. — The  various  millets  have  an  important 
place    in   the   forage   rotation   because    they   grow 


BARNYARD    MILLET.       YIELD,    15    TONS    PER    ACRE 
NEW    JERSEY    EXPERIMENT    STATION 


INTENSIVE   SYSTEM    OF   CROPPING  31 

rapidly,  mature  early,  and  may  be  seeded  from  any 
time  from  May  until  August.  The  Japanese  barn- 
yard millet  has  proven  to  be  one  of  the  most  profit- 
able varieties.  The  yield,  during  some  seasons  has 
reached  13  tons  per  acre.  This  crop  is  often  ready 
for  feeding  from  45  to  50  days  after  seeding. 

Kaffir  corn. — This  crop  is  a  good  yielder  and  is 
often  grown  with  profit.     When  mixed  with  COW- 


CROP  OF  COWPEAS  AND  KAFFIR  CORN.     YIELD,  13  TONS  PER  ACRE 
NEW    JERSEY    EXPERIMENT    STATION 

peas  at  the  rate  of  one  bushel  of  cowpeas  to  one- 
half  bushel  of  kafiftr  corn  per  acre  and  sown  in  July, 
yields  of  12  tons  have  been  secured.  Cowpeas 
are  high  in  nitrogen,  and  kafiir  corn  is  a  carbon- 
aceous plant.  The  combination  of  the  two  there- 
fore makes  a  very  valuable  and  nutritious  fodder. 

Barley. — This  is  the  latest  crop  to  be  utilized  for 
soiling.  It  is  not  injured  by  light  frost  and  can  be 
fed  throughout  October.  Barley  should  be  seeded 


32  THE   BUSINESS   OF  DAIRYING 

about  August  ist  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  acre. 
It  is  a  good  practice  to  seed  rye  with  barley.  The 
rye  makes  a  good  growth  in  the  fall  after  the  barley 
is  harvested,  holds  over  the  winter  well  and  starts 
early  in  the  spring. 

Additional  crops. — Some  other  crops  which  have 
been  grown  with  more  or  less  success  are  teosinte, 
sorghum,  velvet  beans,  winter  oats,  and  lupines. 

A  few  standard  crops  best. — Some  dairymen  make 
the  mistake  of  attempting  to  grow  a  great  variety 
of  forage  crops,  many  of  which  are  uncertain  and 
not  adapted  to  their  particular  farms.  A  few  stand- 
ard crops  well  cared  for  will  usually  prove  the  better 
plan.  For  example,  rye  and  wheat  for  early  feeding, 
followed  by  large  areas  of  alfalfa  (which  can  be  cut 
three  or  four  times  during  the  summer),  and  this 
in  turn  followed  by  oats  and  peas  and  corn  will  give 
a  continuous  supply  if  the  areas  devoted  to  each 
were  adjusted  to  the  size  of  the  herd.  The  soiling 
system  may  be  made  still  simpler  by  simply  grow- 
ing alfalfa  and  corn.  With  this  plan  the  feeding 
period  could  begin  about  the  middle  of  May  and 
continue  until  frost. 

WHAT  CONSTITUTES  VALUE  IN  FORAGE 

(i)  Yield  and  composition. — In  the  case  of 
fine  feeds,  the  amount  and  quality  of  the  nutrients 
they  contain  are  taken  as  the  basis  in  making  a  com- 
parison of  their  feeding  value.  This  method  is  also 
applicable  in  comparing  the  value  of  forage  crops 
for  milk  production.  The  number  of  tons  produced 


INTENSIVE    SYSTEM    OF    CROPPING  33 

of  any  forage  is  not  in  itself  a  safe  guide  as  to  its 
value.  For  example,  corn,  at  that  stage  of  maturity 
which  would  make  it  a  useful  crop  for  feeding  green, 
will  contain  about  25  per  cent,  of  dry  matter,  where- 
as certain  millets,  Kaffir  corn,  etc.,  belonging  to  the 
same  group  of  plants,  will  oftentimes  contain  as 
little  as  10  per  cent.  The  same  is  true  in  the  case 
of  the  leguminous  crops ;  certain  of  these  are  much 
more  watery  at  the  proper  stage  for  feeding  than 
others.  This  point  of  variation  of  dry  matter  in  the 
different  crops  should  be  taken  into  consideration, 
together  with  the  other  important  one,  namely,  the 
influence  of  the  proportion  of  the  different  nutrients 
in  determining  their  value.  For  example,  those 
crops  which  belong  to  the  cereal  group — corn,  mil- 
let, sorghum,  etc. — are  carbonaceous  in  their  char- 
acter, and  should  be  fed  in  connection  with  legu- 
minous crops,  which  supply  a  larger  amount  of 
protein. 

Season  of  the  year  in  which  the  crop  may  be 
grown  and  time  required  for  it  to  mature. — There 
are  certain  winter  annual  plants,  as  rye,  wheat  and 
crimson  clover,  which  are  very  valuable  in  the  for- 
age rotation  from  the  fact  that  they  are  available 
in  the  early  spring.  Again,  there  are  other  crops 
which  grow  best,  and  can  only  be  grown,  in  early  or 
midsummer ;  among  these  may  be  mentioned  oats 
and  peas,  cowpeas  and  soy  beans.  Then  there  are 
others  that  are  valuable  for  the  reason  that  they  will 
make  considerable  growth  after  the  weather  be- 
comes cool,  as  barley,  corn  and  certain  of  the 
grasses. 


34  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

Other  plants  are  valuable  from  the  fact  that  they 
will  mature  in  a  very  short  period.  In  this  class 
are  included  the  various  millets,  the  barnyard 
variety  producing  a  crop  in  from  40  to  50  days. 
The  number  of  plants  that  will  supply  forage 
through  the  entire  growing  season  is  very  limited. 
Alfalfa  comes  as  near  to  this  as  any  grown  in  this 
country.  Cuttings  from  this  crop  have  been  made 
as  early  as  May  I2th  and  as  late  as  October  22d. 

Palatability  and  influence  upon  the  flavor  of  milk. 
— A  plant  that  is  not  palatable  is  of  but  little  value 
for  furage.  Fortunately  there  are  not  many  that  be- 
long to  this  class.  The  following  are  not  readily 
eaten  by  dairy  stock:  Yellow  and  Rural  Branching 
Doura  (Millo  Maize)  and  Evergreen  Broom-Corn. 
Animals  sometimes  refuse  to  eat  certain  varieties  of 
peas  and  beans  for  a  short  period,  but  they  soon 
learn  to  like  them.  There  is  no  forage  crop  which 
are  common,  with  the  exception  of  Dwarf  Essex 
Rape,  that  has  given  an  unpleasant  flavor  to  milk 
when  fed  judiciously.  This  crop  is  not  safe  to  feed 
to  dairy  cows.  There  is  the  most  danger  of  produc- 
ing a  "grassy"  flavor  in  milk  at  the  beginning  of 
the  season,  when  animals  are  changed  from  dry 
foods  to  green  forage.  It  sometimes  occurs,  too, 
when  immature  forage  is  fed.  This  undesirable 
effect  can  usually  be  overcome  by  feeding  in 
limited  quantities  and  always  after  milking. 

As  already  stated,  one  of  the  advantages  of  soil- 
ing is  that  larger  yields  can  be  obtained  with  the 
system  than  by  pasturing.  These  are  secured  in  two 
ways:  by  increased  yields  from  single  crops  as  a 


INTENSIVE   SYSTEM    OF   CROPPING  35 

result  of  careful  preparation  of  the  ground  and  thor- 
ough cultivation,  and  by  growing  two  and  some- 
times three  crops  on  the  same  area  during  a  season, 
taking  advantage  of  the  fact  that  certain  crops  grow 
best  at  certain  times  of  the  year. 

The  following  combinations  of  crops  have  been 
found  practicable  in  my  experience  and  show  the 
possibilities  of  intense  farm  practice  under  good 
average  conditions. 

Some  Practical  Forage  Rotations— Annual  Yield  Per  Acre 

Yield  per 

Time  of         Time  of  Acre. 

Crops  in  One  year  Rotation          seeding         cutting  Tons 

Rye  and  Crimson  Clover September —  May  1-10  8.05 

Oats  and  Peas May  10 July  1-10  7.60 

Soy  Beans July  10 Sept.  1-10 9.00 

Total 24.65 

Wheat  Fodder September....  May  10-20  7.00 

Cowpeas May  20 July  10-20 8.20 

Japanese  Millet July  20 Sept.  10-20   7.00 

Total .T2.20 

Oats  and  Peas April  1 June  10-20 7.34 

Japanese  Millet June  20 Aug.    1-10 8.73 

Barley  and  Peas Aug.  10 Oct.    10-20 6.03 

Total 22.10 

Oats  and  Peas April  10 June  1-10  6.80 

Cowpeas June  10 Aug.  10-20 8.20 

Barley  and  Peas Aug.  20 Oct.  20-30  6.30 

Total 21 .30 

Rye September. . . .  May  1-7 9.60 

Cowpeas June  10 Aug.  25-Sept.  1 10.50 

Barley Sept.  2 Oct.  27-Nov.  1 2.60 

Total 22.70 

Rye October May  7-19....  .    9.60 

Soy  Beans June  10 Aug.  19-25 8.80 

Barley Sept.  2 Oct.  27-Nov.  1 2.60 

Total 21  00 

Crimson  Clover July May  20-.Tune  1...  .  8.00 

Corn June  1 July  20-Aug.  1 9.56 

Total fl7.56 

Mixed  Grasses September. . . .  June  20-30 7.00 

June 20 Aug.  20-Sept.  1....  12.24 

Total...  ..  19.24 


30  THE   BUSINESS   OF  DAIRYING 

Three  Crops  that  may  be  Grown  in   Succession  on  the 
Same  Area  the  Same  Season.  (See  page  37.) 


3D.      SOY  BEANS 


INTENSIVE  SYSTEM  OF  CROPPING 


37 


Yield  per 

Time  of        Time  of  Acre. 

Crops  in  One  year  Rotation        seeding        cutting  Tons 

Rye  and  Vetch Sept.  10 May    10-19 8.60 

Corn May  27 July   20-29 11.80 


Total 20.40 

Rye August May   1-10 8.50 

Pearl  Millet May  18 Aug.   8-15 15.10 


Total 23.60 

Oats  and  Peas Aug.  10 June  16-23 10.20 

Cowpeas Aug.  1 Sept.  16-22 8.00 

Total 18.20 

Oats  and  Peas Aug.  21 June  29-July  6 10.20 

Flint  Corn July  10 Sept.  22-30 11.00 


Total 21.20 

Oats  and  Peas April  2 June  26-July  4 6.20 

Cowpeas  and  Kaffir  Corn July  10 Sept.  1-16  12.20 

Total 18. 40 

Alfalfa— First  year,  two  cuttings 8.00 

Second  year,  four  cuttings 20.21 

Third  year,  five  cuttings 26.60 

Fourth  year,  four  cuttings 21.70 

Fifth  year,  five  cuttings 20.11 


A  Combination  of  Forage  Crops  which  May  Be  Grown 
on  the  Same  Area  the  Same  Season 


Crops  in  one  year 
rotation 

Time  of 
Seeding 

Time  of 
Cutting 

Yield 
per 
acre 

Combination  1* 
Total  

Crimson  Clover 
Oats  and  Peas.. 
(  Soy  Beans  

September 
May  10..... 
July  10  

May  1-10...... 
July  1-10  
Sept.  1-10  

Tons 
8.05 
7.60 
9.00 

24.65 

Combination  2. 

^  >Vheat  Fodder. 
Hf  Cowpeas 

September 
May  20 

May  10-20  
July  10-20 

7.00 
8  20 

Total  

(  Japanese  Millet 

July  20.... 

Sept.    10-20.... 

7.00 
22.20 

<  Rye  

October 

May  7-19 

9  60 

Combination  3. 

•<  Soy  Beans  
(  Barley  

June   10  — 
Sept.  2  

Aug.  19-25  
Oct.  27-Nov.  1. 

8.80 
2.60 

Total  

21.00 

Combination  4. 

j  Mixed   Grasses. 
1  Corn 

September. 
June   20 

June  20-30... 
Aug  20-Sept  1 

7.00 
12  24 

Total 

19  24 

Combination  5 

Alfalfa    

August    .  .  . 

May  15-Oct.  1. 

26.60 

(5  cuttings.) 

*See  page  3ti. 


38  THE   BUSINESS   OF  DAIRYING 


CHAPTER  II 

CUTTING,      HANDLING,      AND      FEEDING 
FORAGE    CROPS 

WITH  the  exception  of  corn,  forage  crops  can  be 
cut  to  advantage  with  the  mowing  machine.  On 
large  dairy  farms,  however,  a  reaper  will  do  the 
work.  Corn  may  be  cut  for  a  small  herd  by  hand, 
and  for  large  herds  with  the  ordinary  corn  harvester. 
In  my  experience  with  a  herd  of  fifty  animals,  the 
plan  followed  was  to  cut  about  one  and  one-half  tons 
of  forage  each  morning  to  supply  the  herd  for  the 
day.  This  was  cut  with  the  mowing  machine,  re- 
quiring from  20  minutes  to  a  half  hour,  raked 
with  a  heavy  horse-rake,  loaded  on  a  low  wagon,  and 
fed  to  the  cows  in  a  two-acre  field  where  they  were 
turned  every  morning  for  exercise.  Some  may  ob- 
ject to  this  method,  preferring  to  feed  all  the  forage 
in  the  stable,  which  was  my  practice  for  the  evening 
feeding.  However,  with  a  field  kept  clean  and  well 
drained  and  with  plenty  of  room,  the  plan  worked 
well.  The  cows  were  driven  into  the  stable  early  in 
the  afternoon  and  given  a  light  feeding  of  hay.  The 
barn  was  darkened  to  lessen  the  annoyance  of  flies, 
and  at  this  time  of  day  the  stable  was  also  much 
cooler  than  the  field.  After  being  milked,  the  cows 
were  fed  forage  in  the  stalls  and  turned  out  again. 

With  a  stable  arranged  so  that  a  team  can  be 
driven  through  in  front  of  the  cows,  I  should  prefer 
to  feed  both  morning  and  evening  in  the  stable, 


CUTTING,   HANDLING  AND  FEEDING   CROPS  3Q 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  cows  are  kept  clean 
where  soiling  is  practiced,  as  the  animals  are  not 
ordinarily  as  clean  as  when  kept  in  pasture,  for  the 
reason  that  in  the  latter  case  they  keep  clean  natu- 
rally. It  is  important  to  feed  dry  hay  in  connection 
with  the  soiling  crops,  to  give  the  manure  a  proper 
consistency  and  to  aid  in  keeping  the  stable  clean. 
Forage  as  a  complete  ration. — The  advantage  of 
green  forage  in  providing  an  abundance  of  roughage 
throughout  the  growing  season,  as  well  as  the  rela- 
tive cheapness  of  certain  of  them,  makes  the  ques- 
tion of  whether  they  may  not  constitute  the  ration 
of  the  entire  herd  a  practicable  one — that  is,  whether 
it  is  practicable  and  profitable  to  use  soiling  crops 
exclusively  and  thus  reduce  the  necessity  for  pastur- 
age and  for  purchased  feeds.  An  experiment  was 
conducted  by  the  writer  to  learn  the  influence  of  a 
ration  composed  entirely  of  forage  and  its  economy 
as  compared  with  a  food  consisting  of  a  mixed  ration 
of  green  forage  and  fine  feed.  The  forage  ration 
consisted  of  100  pounds  of  oats  and  peas,  while  the 
forage  and  feed  ration  was  made  up  of  60  pounds  of 
oats  and  peas  (green),  five  pounds  wheat  bran,  and 
three  pounds  of  dried  brewers'  grains.  Notwith- 
standing the  relatively  large  bulk  of  the  forage  ra- 
tion, the  animals  consumed  it  readily  and  no  un- 
favorable effects  upon  their  health  were  noticed, 
though  the  gain  in  weight  was  somewhat  less  than 
for  the  ration  consisting  of  forage  and  feed.  Milk 
from  the  forage  and  feed  ration  was  produced  at  a 
cost  of  46  cents  per  hundred,  and  from  the  forage 
ration  at  a  cost  of  39  cents  per  hundred.  The  results 


4O  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

of  the  experiment  indicated  that  green  forage  of  the 
same  general  composition  as  oats  and  peas  may 
serve  as  the  entire  ration  of  dairy  cows  without  in- 
jury to  the  animals,  and  at  a  considerable  saving  in 
the  cost  of  milk,  though  the  yield  may  be  slightly 
reduced. 


CHAPTER  III 
TOP  DRESSINGS  FOR  SOILING  CROPS 

IT  frequently  pays  to  use  top  dressings  on  soiling 
crops.  This,  however,  is  a  matter  which  must  be 
carefully  considered  by  the  individual  dairyman. 
My  experience  has  been  that  with  early  crops,  par- 
ticularly such  as  rye  and  wheat,  this  method  of  in- 
creasing the  yield  usually  results  in  a  financial  gain. 
Several  experiments  were  conducted  to  determine 
this  point.  The  plan  was  to  use  two  acres  in  experi- 
menting with  each  crop,  one  being  treated  with 
nitrate  of  soda  as  a  top  dressing,  while  the  other 
untreated  served  in  making  a  comparison.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  date  and  amount  of  applica- 
tion on  the  different  crops  and  the  yield  on  the 
treated  and  untreated  plots. 

The  results  indicate  that  crops  of  this  nature  may 
be  very  materially  increased  by  applications  of  ni- 
trate of  soda  at  the  rate  of  150  to  200  pounds  per 
acre.  They  also  show  that  the  treatment  is  profit- 
able from  a  financial  standpoint,  especially  early  in 
the  season,  when  forage  is  not  usually  abundant. 


CUTTING,  HANDLING  AND  FEEDING  CROPS          4! 


AMOUNTS  APPLIED  AND  RESULTS 

UIBQ  jaK 

8 

5    S    S5 

S    S 

£ 

1-1      10     et 

eo      o 

aiov  -lad 
81B.rj.iiiI  jo  ^803 

8 

S    SS    1? 

8    8 

eo      •<*<      co      eo      eo      •* 

55 

3 

uoj,  J9d  og-g$ 

fc 

m     oo     o 
05      in      S 

10*       00       10* 

£    § 
£    * 

"JU9O  J8J 

6 

1  1  1 

S    § 

8UOJL 

g 

s  s  s 

10       «| 

in      i—  ' 

1 

9JOV 

05    S 

O       0 

H 

g    S    8 

§S      Sj! 
eo     in 

pa,^n 

cc      ^ 
£3         • 

H 

8    S    S 

10^*10 

8    8 

,,„„„ 

IP 

4 

h 

• 

S    |    $ 

i-l         (M 

03        08        CS 

S    g 

s 

bo    ^. 

5    p 

<3     »-s 

paijddv 
»JB.HI^  jo  junotuv 

3'  S  1  S  g  1  1 

uor}BOt[ddv 

& 

*E     'C     *E 
a    &    a 
<   -4   ^ 

>>    'E 

1     ^ 

' 

:::::: 

o> 
M 

Rye  
*  Wheat  
Wheat  

Barnyard  Millet  .. 
Mixed  Grasses  

THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


UNTREATED    PLOT — 4.6    TONS  TREATED    PLOT — 7.5    TONS 

PER  ACRE        -  PER  ACRE 

EXPERIMENT   WITH    NITRATE   OF   SODA  ON    WHEAT 


CHAPTER  IV 

A    SUCCESSION    OF    FORAGE    CROPS    FOR 
FIFTY    FULL    GROWN    ANIMALS 

THE  following  table  shows  a  succession  of  forage 
crops  actually  grown  at  the  Experiment  Station  Farm 
in  New  Jersey,  and  which  furnished  a  continuous 
supply  of  forage  from  May  1st  to  November  ist, 
or  six  months.  Data  showing  the  time  of  planting 
and  harvesting,  cost  of  production  and  yield  are  also 
given  in  connection  with  the  table.  The  number  of 
acres  used  for  supplying  the  278  tons  of  forage  was 
24,  10  of  which  were  used  exclusively  for  forage 
crops,  while  the  other  13  were  only  used  a  part 
of  the  season. 


A  SUCCESSION  OF  FORAGE  CROPS 


43 


A  ROTATION  OF  SOILING  CROPS  WHICH  SUP- 
PLIED  FIFTY  ANIMALS  SIX  MONTHS 

(N.  J.  Experiment  Station) 


KIND 

Seed 
Used. 
Bus. 

Date  of 
Seeding 

Period  of 
Cutting  and 
Feeding 

Yield. 
Tons 

Rye    2  acres  

4 

Sept.  27  1900 

May   1  7 

0  4 

Rye    2  acres  

4 

Oct.      3  1900 

May    7  19 

19  2 

Alfalfa,   first  cutting.... 

7-12 

May   14,  1838 

May    19-25  

11.1 

Wheat    2  acres 

4 

Sept    26  1900 

May  25-June  1 

10  4 

Crimson  Clover,  6  acres 

11-5 

July    16  1900 

June  1-21  .  .. 

42  8 

Mixed   Grasses,  1  acre.  . 

June  21-26 

8  3 

Oats  and  Peas,  2  acres.. 
Oats  and  Peas,  2  acres.. 
Alfalfa,   second  cutting 

4 
3 
4 
3 

April    2  
April  11  

June  26-July  4 
July   4-9  
July   9-11 

12.4 
8.2 
2  1 

Oats  and  Peas,  5  acres 

10 

iy2 

April  19 

July   11-22 

16  4 

Southern    White    Corn, 
2  acres  

1/2 

May     2...  . 

July  22-  Aug.  8 

17.7 

Barnyard  Millet,  2  acres 
Soy  P»eans,  1  acre  

1% 

2 

June  19  
June  10    ... 

Aug.   3-19  
Aug.   19-25  

23.2 

8  8 

Cowpeas,  1  acre  

2 

June  10  

Aug   25-Sept   1 

10.5 

Cowpeas  and  Kaffir  Corn, 
2  acres 

2 
1 

July   10 

Sept     1  16 

24  4 

Pearl  Millet,  2  acres.... 
Cowpeas,  1  acre  

% 

ll/2 

July   11  
July   24  

Sept.  16-Oct.  1 
Oct.    1-5  

20.3 
8.0 

Mixed  Grasses,  5  acres 
(partly  dried)   

Barley,  2  acres  

sy2 

Sept.    2    . 

Oct.  5-27  
Oct.   27-Nov.   1 

20.0 
5.2 

Total 

278.3 

44  THE   BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


CHAPTER  V 

VALUE  OF  FORAGE  CROPS  PER  ACRE  COM- 
PARED WITH  CLOVER  HAY  AND  WHEAT 
BRAN 

THE  arrangement  of  crops  (see  page  45)  furn- 
ished a  continuous  supply  of  forage  for  the  dairy 
herd  From  May  1st  until  Nov.  ist.  The  wheat  on 
acres  3,  4,  and  5,  the  alfalfa  on  acre  8,  and  the  crim- 
son clover  on  acres  13,  14,  and  15,  were  used  for 
green  manure.  The  total  yield  per  acre  for  all  crops 
in  the  year's  rotation  shows  a  profitable  return. 
Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  crops  that  were 
turned  under,  and  the  mixed  grasses,  which  were 
not  in  the  regular  rotation,  six  acres  yielded  less 
than  ten  tons,  eleven  acres  yielded  more  than  ten 
tons  and  less  than  fifteen,  four  yielded  over  fifteen 
and  less  than  twenty,  while  one  yielded  over  twenty 
tons.  The  average  yield  per  acre  for  the  crops  in 
the  regular  rotations,  not  including  those  turned 
under,  was  12.15  tons. 


VALUE    OF    FORAGE    CROPS    PER    ACRE 


45 


SOILING    CROPS— KIND,   YIELD    AND    NUTRIENTS 


CROP  ROTATION 

Yield  per  Acre 

NUTRIENTS 

Protein 

Ether 
Extract 

Fiber  and 
N.  free 
Extract 

Rve    

Tons 
6.70 
9.05 

Lbs. 
347.73 
364.80 

Lbs. 
80.4 
154.2 

Lbs. 
2,441.95 
3,162.00 

Cowpeas  and  Millet 

Total    ...                   

15.75 
5.00 
10.05 

712.53 
259.50 
417.36 

234.6 
60.00 
172.19 

5,603.95 
1,822.35 
996.09 

Rye  

Cowpeas  and  Millet   

Total 

15.05 

676.86 

232.19 

2.818.44 

•Wheat  

Peas  and  Oats           ... 

5.55 
7.00 

588.30 
231.00 

72.15 
86.80 

1,143.30 
2,316.30 

White  Flint  Corn  

Total 

12.55 

819.30 

158.95 

3,459.60 

*Wheat  

Peas  and  Oats 

5.55 
7.00 

588.30 
231.00 

72.15 
86.80 

1,143.30 
2,316.30 

White  Flint  Corn 

Total 

12.55 

819.30 

158.95 

3,459.60 

•Wheat  .... 

Peas  and  Oats  

5.34 
7.00 

556.04 
231.00 

69.42 
86.80 

1,100.04 
2,316.30 

White  Flint  Corn 

Total  

12.34 
4.15 
3.60 

787.04 
255.00 
97.20 

156.22 
42.50 
39.60 

3,416.34 
969.00 
1,004.40 

Crimson  Clover 

Cowpeas  and  Kaffir  Corn  
Seeded  to  Alfalfa   August  13th 

Total  

7.75 
4.25 
4.00 

177.05 
255.00 
108.00 

61.00 
42.50 
44.00 

1,819.00 
969.00 
1,116  00 

Crimson  Clover  

Cowpeas  and  Kaffir  Corn  

Seeded  to  Alfalfa,  August  13th  

Total  .. 

8.25 

363.00 

86.50 

2,085.00 

•Alfalfa   

Barnvard  Millet 

13.60 
1.00 

435.20 
83.00 

240.80 
18.00 

5,807.20 
323.00 

Reseeded  to  Alfalfa,  August  6th  
Total.. 

14.60 
10.34 
5.00 

518.20 
597.04 
177.05 

258.80 
186.12 
61.00 

6,130.20 
3,701.72 
I,8t9.00 

Wheat    

Sweet  Corn  

Total  , 

15  34 

756.09 
579.04 
347.90 

247.12 

186.12 
93.02 

5,550.72 
3,701.72 
1,208.00 

Wheat    

10.34 
6.04 

Cowpeas   

Total 

16.38 
4.24 
5.10 
3.40 

926.94 
220.48 
339.52 
183.60 

279.14 
50.88 
112.54 
40.80 

4,909.72 
1,543.36 
2.292.28 
1,074.00 

Rye     

Vetch  and  Oats 

Barley    

Total  

12.74 

743.60 

204.22  1 

4.909.64 

(Concluded  on  page  4&) 
"Used  for  green  manure. 


46 


THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


SOILING 


CROPS—  KIND,    YIELD    AND   NUTRIENTS 

(Continued  from  page  45) 


1  Acre  No. 

CROP  ROTATION 

Yield  per  Acre 

NUTRIENTS 

a 
I 

1 

£13 

ww 

Fiber  and 
N.  free 
Extract 

12 
13 
14 
15 

16 
17 

18 
19 
20 

21 

Rye  

Tons 
4.24 
5.10 
3.40 

Lbs. 
220.48 
339.52 
183.60 

Lbs. 
50.88 
112.54 
40.80 

Lbs. 
1,543.36 
2,292.28 
1,074.00 

Vetch  and  Oats  

Barley 

Total 

12.74 

743.60 

204.22 

4,909.64 

*Crimson  Clover 

Peas  and  Oats  

7.30 
4.00 

773.80 
216.00 

90.52 
48.00 

2,415.57 
1,264.00 

Barley    .  .  . 

Total  

11.30 

989.80 

138.52 

3,679.57 

*Crimson  Clover 

Peas  and  Oats  

6.30 
3.30 

667.80 
178.20 

81.90 
39.60 

1,297.80 
1,042.80 

Barlejr 

Total 

9.60 

846.00 

121.50 

2,340.60 

*Crimson  Clover 

Peas  and  Oats  

6.60 
2.50 

699.60 
68.00 

85.80 
25.50 

1,359.60 
587.50 

Sorghum 

Total 

9.10 
6.90 
2.75 

767.60 
386.40 
88.00 

111.30 
124.20 
49.50 

1,947.10 
2,470.20 
1,174.25 

Wheat    

Barnyard  Millet  

Total... 

9.65 
5.30 
2.00 

474.40 
296.80 
64.00 

173.70 
95.40 
36.00 

3.644.45 
1,897.40 
854.00 

Wheat 

Barnyard  Millet  

Total 

7.30 
21.36 

11.15 

9.00 
21.73 

360.80 
1,775.02 

925.45 

540.00 

572.59 

131.40 
378.07 

200.70 

90.00 
193.57 

2.751.40 
6,900.42 

3,601.45 

1,971.00 
7,983.60 

Alfalfa   .  . 

Alfalfa 

Crimson  Clover             .          .  . 

Corn    

Total  

30.73 

12.20 
20.08 

1,112.59 

1,146.80 

1,887.52 

1,080 
810 
540 
924 
558 

283.57 

292.80 
481.92 

264 
198 
132 
246 
228 

9,954  60 

5,124.00 
8,433.60 

5,040 
3,780 
2,520 
3,240 
4,200 

Mixed    Grasses 

Mixed   Grasses  (second  crop)  

Four  tons  clover  hay  contains    

Three    "          "         "            " 

Two       "          "         "            "        

Three  tons  wheat  bran  contains 

Three  tons  corn  meal             "       

'Used  for  green  manure. 


SUCCESSION   OF  FORAGE  CROPS 


47 


CHAPTER  VI 

SUCCESSION   OF   FORAGE  CROPS   IN   DIF- 
FERENT  STATES 

THE  tables  shown  in  this  connection  will  serve  as 
guides  to  the  dairymen  in  these  particular  States. 
While  it  is  not  expected  that  any  of  these  systems 
can  be  followed  in  detail,  they  may  prove  useful. 


EXAMPLES  OF  ROTATIONS  OF  SOILING  CROPS 

Soiling  Crops  Adapted  to  Northern  New  England  States — 
Lindsey.   (For  10  Cows,  Entire  Soiling) 


KIND 

Seed  per  Acre 

Time  of 
Seeding 

Area 

Time  of  Cutting 

Rye        

2  bushels  

Sept.  10-15  

Yz  acre 

May   20-May   30 

Wheat            

2  bushels  

Sept.  10-15 

1/2  acre 

June  1-June  15 

20  pounds             

July  15-Aug  1 

Grass  and  Clover 
Vetch  and  Oats.. 

Yz    bus.    Red    Top,   1 
peck    Timothy,    10 
Ibs.  Red  Clover.... 
3  bus.    Oats,   50   Ibs. 
Vetch 

September  .  .  . 
Anril  20 

%  acre 
Yz  acre 

June  15-  June  30 
June  25-July  10 

Vetch  and  Oats.. 

3  bus.    Oats,   50   Ibs. 
Vetch   

April  30 

Yz  acre 

July  10  July  20 

Peas  and  Oats... 

lYz  bus.  Canada  Peas, 
lYz  bus.  Oats 

April  20 

Yz  acre 

June  25-July  10 

peas  and  Oats... 

lYz  bus.  Canada  Peas, 
\Yz  bus.  Oats  

April  30  

1/2  acre 

July  10-July  20 

Barnyard  Millet. 

1  peck 

Way  10 

Ya  acre 

July  25-Aug    10 

Barnyard  Millet. 

1  peck  

May  25  

Y&  acre 

Aug    10-Aug    20 

Soy  Beans 
(medium  green) 

18  Quarts       . 

Mav  20 

Y"\  acre 

Aug    25-Sept    15 

Corn  

May  20  . 

Ys  acre 

Aug    25-Sept    10 

Com              

May  30 

Yz  acre 

Sept   10  Sept   20 

Hungarian  

1  bushel  

July  15  

Yz  acre 

Sept  20-Sept  30 

Barley  and  Peas 

IV2  bus.  Peas,  1%  bus. 
Barley  

Aug.  5  

1  acre 

Oct.   1-Oct.  20 

48 


THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


SOILING  CROPS  FOR  PENNSYLVANIA 
Watson  &  Mairs 


CROP 

Area  for 
10  Cows 

When  to  be  Fed 

Rye   

^•/z  acre 

May  15-June  1 

Alfalfa 

2  acres 

June  1-June  12 

Clover  and  Timothy 

%  acre 

June  12  June  24 

Peas  and  Oats  

1  acre  .  . 

June  24-July  15 

Alfalfa  (second  crop) 

2  acres 

July  15-Au01   11 

Sorghum  and  Cowpeas.   (after  Rye)... 
O  owpeus  (after  Peas  and  Oats)  .  . 

Vz  acre   .  . 
1  acre 

Aug.  11-Aug.  28 
Au"    28-Sept    30 

CROPS   FOR    PARTIAL    SOILING    FOR   ILLINOIS 
DURING  MIDSUMMER— Fraser 


Kinds  of  Fodder 

Amount 
Seed 
per  Acre 

Approxi- 
mate Time 
of  Seeding 

Approximate 
Time  of 
Feeding 

1.  Corn,  early,  sweet  and 
dent            

6  quarts  

May  1  

July  1-Aug.  1 

2.  Corn,  medium  dent  
3   Cowpeas    

5  quarts  
1  bushel    .... 

May  15... 
May  15... 

Aug.   1-Sept.   30 
Aug.   1-Sept.   15 

4   Soy  Beans         

1  bushel    

May  15... 

Aug.   1  Sept.   15 

5.  Oats  and  Canada  Peas. 

1  bushel  each 

April  15... 

July  1-July  15 

6.  Oats  and  Canada  Peas. 

1  bushel  each 

May  1.... 

July  15-Aug.  1 

7.  Rape  (Dwarf  Essex)... 

4  pounds  

May  1.... 

July  1-Aug.  1 

8.  Rape,  second  sowing... 

4  pounds  — 

June  1  

Aug.   1-Sept.  1 

9.  Rape,  third  sowing  

4  pounds  .... 

July  1.... 

Sept.  1-Oct.  1 

SUCCESSION  OF  FORAGE  CROPS 


49 


CO 


CO 

2^ 
00 


8AVOO 


MOO  -IOJ 


183AJBH 

01  SUIMOS 

U1O.IJ  S^BQ 


11 


•      M    « 

C<M  a>  •-  2i 

w 


-    -    T3 


Sax  S 

O    03    ei         > 
&  fa  fa        <t1 


a  o    : 

a  a  : 


:     g 


»1»-S  t-8  l-s»-8l-s'«Jj'<j<JCCDC 


5        I  O( 

S        '          <1 


O   in  Q  oo 


•    rH    O 
r-l    CO    O* 


>>        ^        fl         fl 


I 


5O  THE    BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

Remarks. — Feed  in  stable  during  day  and  turn 
cows  on  pasture  at  night,  or  feed  in  the  pasture, 
spreading  the  forage.  After  cutting  rye,  use  same 
ground  for  the  rape,  flint  corn  and  sorghum,  and 
after  cutting  peas  and  oats,  use  same  ground  for 
evergreen  sweet  corn  and  rape.  After  oats,  sow 
peas  and  barley.  In  this  way  a  single  acre  only  is 
required  (except  alfalfa,  which  is  permanent)  and 
the  forage  produced  is  ample  amount  of  good  succu- 
lent feed  for  ten  cows  for  nearly  half  a  year. 


DATES    FOR    PLANTING    AND    USING    SOILING 
CROPS  IN  WESTERN  OREGON  AND  WEST- 
ERN WASHINGTON— Hunter 


CROPS 

When    Planted 

When  Used 

Rye  and  Vetch 

September   1  15 

April  1  May  15 

Winter  Oats  and  Vetch. 
Winter  Wheat  and  Vetch 
Red  Clover  

Sept.  and  Oct.. 
Sept.  and  Oct.. 

May  15-July  1. 
May  15-July  1. 
May  15-July  1. 

Alfalfa  

During  June 

Oats  and  Peas  ..  . 

February 

During  June 

Oats  and  Vetch 

February 

June  15-July  15. 

Oats  and  Peas 

April              .  .. 

During  July 

Rape  

Mav    1  

During  July. 

Oats  and  Peas 

May 

During  August 

Rape 

June 

During  August 

Corn  

May    10-20 

During  Aug     Sept    and 

Turnips 

July   1 

Oct. 
Late     fall      and      early 

Thousand  Headed  Kale. 
Mangels,    Carrots    and 

March     15     and 
trans.  June  1.. 
April    

winter. 
Oct.  15-April  1. 

Oct.  15-April  1  (fed  from 

Rutabagas  . 

bins  pits  or  root-houses 

OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 

:S  OF  SOILING       51 

CHAPTER  VII 

ADVANTAGES   AND    DISADVANTAGES    OF 
SOILING 

ADVANTAGES 

(1)  Less  land  required. — Any  system  which  in- 
creases the  productive  capacity  of  the  soil  reduces 
the  acreage  required  to  maintain  the  same  number  of 
cattle. 

(2)  Less  fencing  required. — Aside  from  a  small 
field  for  exercise,  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  cows  to 
run  at  large.     Hence  the  fences  can  be  disposed  of, 
saving  much  expense  for  their  maintenance.     This 
also  throws  the  farm  into  larger  areas  for  cultiva- 
tion,   saving   time    in    turning   with    teams    during 
planting,  cultivating,  etc. 

(3)  Increased  food  production. — The  amount  of 
food  produced  by  soiling  frequently  exceeds  three 
times  that  from  pasture,  as  every  square  foot  of  the 
farm  is  kept  at  its  highest  productive  capacity  undis- 
turbed by  the  treading  of  animals. 

(4)  Greater  variety  of  food. — The  succession  of 
crops   provides    changes    in    the    ration   which    are 
usually  much  appreciated  by  the  animals,  keeping 
their  appetites  good  and  favoring  a  large  consump- 
tion of  food. 

(5)  Less  waste. — Animals  on  pasture  waste  much 
food  by  constant  tramping,  by  manure  dropping  and 
by  lying  on  it.    Some  of  the  pasture  grasses  become 
old  and  unpalatable,  while  in  the  soiling  system, 
plants  are  cut  at  the  proper  time,  insuring  palatabil- 


52  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

(6)  Less  discomfort  and  better  condition  of  the 
animals. — With  the  soiling  system  the  animals  can 
be  kept  in  the  stable  during  the  heat  of  the  day, 
where  they  may  be  protected  from  flies,  and  instead 
of  racing  over  scanty  pastures  to  secure  the  proper 
amount  of  food,  they  are  fed  regularly  and  liberally. 

(7)  Increased  milk  and  better  production. — The 
soiling  system  favors  the  production  of  a  large  and 
even  flow  of  milk,  so  important  in  the  retail  milk 
business,  hence  more  profit. 

(8)  Increased    quantity    and    better    quality    of 
manure. — The  animals  are  kept  in  the  stable  more  of 
the  time,  where  the  manure  is  saved  and  preserved 
without  waste.    Where  soiling  is  practiced  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  land  be  rich,  hence  the  saving  of 
manure  is  particularly  valuable  in  connection  with 
this  class  of  farming.     This  saving  of  the  manure 
alone  frequently  pays  for  the  extra  expense  incurred 
in  raising  and  handling  the  soiling  crops. 

DISADVANTAGES 

(1)  Increased  labor  required. — The  soiling  sys- 
tem requires  much  extra  labor  in  preparing  the  soil 
and  planting  and  harvesting  the  various  crops  and 
in  feeding  the  herd.    The  crops  must  be  planted  at 
the  proper  time  and  green  feed  cut  and  placed  before 
the   animals   daily,   regardless   of  the   weather  and 
other  farm  work  which  may  be  very  urgent. 

(2)  More  practical  knowledge  of  crops  required. 
— For  successful  soiling,  careful  planning  and  much 
forethought  and  study  are  necessary,  which  does  not 
need  to  be  considered  with  the  pasture  system. 


SOILING  VS.   SILAGE  53 

CHAPTER  VIII 
SOILING  vs.  SILAGE 

IT  has  been  my  experience  that  the  production  of 
milk  from  soiling  crops,  supplemented  with  five 
or  six  pounds  of  hay  and  six  to  eight  pounds  of 
grain  of  the  proper  kind  to  make  a  balanced  ration, 
has  been  practically  the  same  as  when  a  ration  of 
silage  has  been  fed  properly  balanced  with  from  six 
to  eight  pounds  of  grain. 

The  results  of  the  two  systems  where  soiling 
crops  were  fed  from  May  1st  to  November  ist  and 
silage  for  the  remaining  six  months  are  shown  in 
the  accompanying  table.  Only  those  animals  which 
remained  in  the  herd  the  entire  year  are  included 
in  the  record. 

The  tabulation  shows  that  during  the  period  of 
seven  years  with  a  herd  averaging  23  cows  there  is 
a  difference  in  the  average  yearly  milk  yield  for  the 
herd  of  378  pounds,  which  is  in  favor  of  soiling. 
This  difference,  however,  only  amounts  to  about 
16  pounds  a  year  for  each  cow,  which  is  hardly 
worth  considering.  The  difference  in  the  annual  but- 
ter yield  of  the  herd  amounted  to  about  16.8  pounds 
in  favor  of  soiling,  or  less  than  one  pound  a  year 
for  each  animal.  The  difference  in  the  average  per 
cent,  of  fat  from  the  two  systems  is  perhaps  of  most 
interest,  but  this  proved  to  be  practically  the  same, 
being  4.31  per  cent,  for  the  soiling  period  and  4.38 
per  cent,  for  the  silage  period.  The  number  of  fresh 
cows  each  month  during  the  year  was  quite  uniform, 


54 


THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


SUMMARY     RECORD     OF     THE     DAIRY     HERD, 

SHOWING    AVERAGE    YIELDS    OF    MILK 

AND    FAT    DURING    THE    SOILING 

AND    SILAGE    PERIODS 


YEAB 

Number  of  Cows 

SOILING  PERIOD. 
MAY  IST—  NOVEMBER  IST 

SILAGE  PERIODS 
NOVEMBER  IST  —  MAY  IST 

AVERAGE  YIELD  PER 
Cow  OF— 

AVERAGE  YIELD  PER 
Cow  OF  — 

M 

m 

2 

| 

0 

pq 

1 

M 

i 

1 

Butter 

1 

1897 

21 
20 
12 
27 
26 
30 
26 

Lbs. 
3,414 
3,174 
3,889 
3,390 
3,250 
3,624 
3.076 

Lbs. 
144.5 
140.7 
164.3 
153.  4 
137.1 
153.8 
133.7 

Lbs. 
168.6 
164.2 
191.7 
179.0 
160.0 
179.4 
156.0 

% 
4.23 
4.43 
4.23 
4.53 
4.22 
4.24 
4.35 

Lbs. 
2,941 
2,970 
3,078 
2,975 
3,287 
3,046 
2,871 

Lbs. 
123.1 
132.0 
137.8 
137.2 
144.2 
127.7 
124.9 

Lbs. 
143.6 
154.0 
160.8 
160.1 
168.2 
149.0 
145.7 

% 
4.18 
4.44 
4.48 
4.61 
4.39 
4.19 
4.35 

1898 

1899  

1900  

1901  

1902  

1903  

Average  

23 

3,402 

146.8 

171.3 

4.31 

3,024 

132.4 

154.5 

4.38 

hence  the  comparison  of  yields  from  the  two  sys- 
tems is  a  fair  one  and  shows  that  both  systems  are 
practicable  in  respect  to  the  quantity,  as  well  as 
the  quality,  of  the  product  produced.  On  small 
farms,  where  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  largest  herd 
possible,  it  is  necessary  that  every  acre  be  made  to 
produce  to  its  highest  capacity.  The  above  systems 
of  summer  and  winter  feeding  doubtless  come  the 
nearest  to  accomplishing  this. 


PART  III— THE  DAIRY  HERD 


CHAPTER  I 

SELECTING   THE   BREED,    FROM    A    BUSI- 
NESS STANDPOINT 

WITH  the  dairy  farmer  the  breed  should  be  chosen 
from  a  business  standpoint.  Dairymen  are  too  often 
careless  and  indifferent  in  regard  to  this  matter, 
hence  fail  in  building  the  very  foundation  of  their 
business.  In  selecting  the  breed  it  is  necessary  that 
the  dairyman  bear  in  mind  its  adaptability  to  the 
particular  line  of  dairying  he  intends  to  follow ;  that 
is,  whether  a  retail  milk  business  where  the  cus- 
tomers demand  a  high  quality  and  are  willing  to  pay 
for  it;  whether  a  wholesale  milk  business  where 
quality  is  of  little  importance  and  the  price  is  low; 
whether  a  breed  is  wanted  for  the  production  of 
butter  on  the  farm  for  local  trade,  or  whether  a  good 
all-around  family  cow  is  wanted.  Again  a  breed 
should  be  adopted  to  the  general  conditions  of  the 
farm.  If  the  farm  is  made  up  of  large  areas  of  rough 
stony  pastures,  a  breed  that  is  a  good  rustler  will 
be  more  profitable  than  one  that  is  not.  The  point 
should  also  be  considered  whether  the  dairyman  is 
going  to  make  it  his  chief  business  to  breed  and  sell 
pure  bred  stock  or  whether  the  production  of  milk 
and  butter  is  to  have  the  first  consideration. 


SELECTING   THE   BREED  57 

Some  dairymen  in  selecting  a  breed  look  for  a 
"general  purpose"  or  dual  purpose  cow,  or  a  cow 
from  a  specially  developed  milk  producing  family  of 
the  beef  breeds,  or  grades  of  such  stock,  the  claim 
being  that  even  if  such  animals  are  not  so  productive 
while  in  the  dairy,  their  meat-producing  tendencies 
offset  this.  The  dual  purpose  cow,  however,  is  too 
apt  to  prove  a  no-purpose  cow.  The  consensus  of  opin- 
ion among  those  who  are  strictly  in  the  dairy  busi- 
ness is,  that  under  most  conditions,  cattle  of  the  dis- 
tinct dairy  type  specially  developed  for  dairy  pur- 
poses are  best.  Owners  of  the  so-called  "special 
purpose"  cows  expect  the  dairy  products  to  give 
such  profitable  returns  that  the  beef  producing 
qualities  of  the  cow  can  be  entirely  ignored.  In  any 
case  the  selection  of  the  breed  should  be  with  a 
view  to  profit,  and  this  selection  must  be  determined 
by  local  conditions. 

Special  adaptations. — While  it  is  claimed  for  two 
or  three  breeds  of  cattle  that  they  possess  the  com- 
bined qualities  of  meat  and  milk,  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  families  and  breeds  which  have  marked  char- 
acteristics distinguishing  them  as  milk  and  butter 
producers.  With  this  great  variety,  a  dairyman  who 
is  ambitious  can  find  and  select  cows  well  adapted 
to  his  particular  conditions.  Some  breeds  are  noted 
for  the  quantity  of  milk  they  produce,  others  for  the 
richness  of  their  milk  and  the  color  of  their  product, 
whether  milk,  cream  or  butter.  Certain  individual 
cows  combine  quantity  and  quality  in  a  marked  de- 
gree. Some  breeds  are  very  active  and  thrive  on  a 
wide  range  of  scanty  pasture  and  consume  coarse 


58  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

foods  with  profit  in  winter.  There  are  other  breeds 
which  do  better  when  more  closely  confined  and 
subjected  to  high  feeding.  Some  cows  give  a  heavy 
flow  of  milk  for  a  short  period  and  others  are  more 
persistent,  giving  a  good  flow  throughout  the  year. 
Many  of  these  different  characteristics  pertain  to 
dairy  breeds,  so  that  a  dairyman  knowing  what  he 
wants,  can  choose  his  breed  without  pronounced 
opinions  or  direct  advice  from  others.  There  is  no 
one  best  breed  for  all.  The  best  breed  is  the  breed 
best  suited  to  each  individual  dairyman's  needs. 
It  is  simply  a  question  of  making  a  proper  study  of 
the  subject,  and  no  dairyman  has  to  go  far  in  this 
country  to  find  a  good  breed  for  milk  production,  for 
the  cream  trade  or  for  butter-making.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  that  the  best  cow  for  butter  is  also  the 
best  cow  for  cheese. 

It  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  mention  briefly,  in 
this  connection,  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
breeds  most  prominent  in  the  dairy  world  to-day. 
Let  us  have  clearly  in  mind  at  the  outset  what  a 
breed  is.  We  recognize  a  class  of  animals  as  a 
breed  when  they  have  been  subjected  to  and  repro- 
duced under  the  same  conditions  until  they  have  ac- 
quired a  distinctive  character  common  to  all  mem- 
bers, which  reproduces  with  very  slight  variations. 

PRINCIPAL  DAIRY   BREEDS 

Ayrshire. — A  breed  adapted  to  the  rougher  and 
less  fertile  sections  of  the  country,  for  the  reason 
that  they  originated  in  the  county  of  Ayr,  Scotland, 
a  region  of  moderate  fertility,  with  natural  pas- 


SELECTING   THE   BREED  59 

turage  so  distributed  that  grazing  animals  had  to 
travel  long  distances  to  satisfy  their  hunger.  They 
excel  in  their  ability  to  obtain  subsistence  and  thrive 
on  a  wide  range  of  scanty  pasture  and  in  giving  a 
dairy  profit  on  coarse  forage.  They  are  tough  and 
hardy  and  stand  rough  weather  better  than  most 
other  breeds.  In  perfecting  the  breed  the  end 
sought  has  been  a  large  yield  of  milk  without 
extravagance  of  food.  The  Ayrshire  cows  are  of 
medium  size,  averaging  about  1,000  pounds  at  ma- 
turity. They  are  short  legged,  fine  boned,  very 
active  and  of  a  somewhat  nervous  temperament. 
The  Scotchman  has  worked  for  quality  in  the  udder 
for  a  long  time,  with  the  result  that  the  full  udder 
of  the  Ayrshire  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  a  model 
in  shape.  The  teats,  however,  are  a  little  too  small 
for  easy  milking,  but  careful  breeders  remedy  this 
defect.  The  Ayrshire  cow  is  a  large  and  persistent 
milker,  occupying  middle  ground  between  the  Hoi- 
steins  as  large  producers  and  the  Jerseys  and  Guern- 
seys as  rich  producers.  One  noted  herd  has  an  un- 
broken record  for  nineteen  years  with  an  average 
product  of  6,407  pounds  a  year  to  the  cow.  Some 
individual  cows  have  exceeded  12,000  pounds  in  one 
year.  Large  butter  records  are  not  numerous,  but 
some  individual  cows  have  reached  500  and  even 
600  pounds. 

The  milk  of  the  Ayrshire  is  not  exceptionally  rich 
but  somewhat  above  the  average.  Herd  records 
average  from  3.5  to  4.0  per  cent,  of  butter  fat 
throughout  the  year,  the  average  for  the  breed  being 
about  3.8.  Ayrshire  milk  is  very  uniform  in  its 


6o 


THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


physical  character.  The  fat  globules  are  small,  even 
in  size  and  do  not  separate  freely  from  the  milk. 
Cream,  therefore,  rises  slowly  and  has  compara- 
tively little  color.  The  Ayrshire  is  therefore  noted 
more  especially  as  a  milk  breed,  the  milk  being 
ordinarily  suited  for  city  supply.  It  stands  long 
transportation  without  churning  or  injury.  The 
Ayrshire  may  be  fairly  classed  as  one  of  the  promi- 
nent dairy  breeds. 

(juernsey. — The  shrewd,  careful  people  of  the  isl- 
and of  Guernsey  have  developed  this  breed,  which  is 
known  the  world  over  for  producing  butter  of  the 
highest  natural  color  and  with  small  outlay  for  food. 
Taking  a  look  at  her  we  see  an  animal  weighing 


GRAND  CHAMPION   AYRSHIRE  COW,   NATIONAL  DAIRY  SHOW, 
CHICAGO,     I9O6 


SELECTING   THE   BREED 


61 


from  900  to  1,200  pounds  and  giving  the  impression 
at  once  of  an  animal  of  the  dairy  type  built  for  the 
butter-making  business.  The  udder  and  teats  are 
large  and  well  placed  in  select  specimens.  Not  only 
is  the  butter  from  the  breed  of  rich  golden  color,  but 
the  milk  and  cream  as  well.  For  this  reason  these 
products  are  highly  prized  by  the  critical  consumer. 
The  cows  produce  liberal  quantities  of  milk  of  un- 
common richness  in  butterfat  and  natural  color. 
They  are  valuable  butter  cows  and  at  the  same  time 
good  animals  for  market  milk  where  quality  secures 
a  relatively  high  price,  and  they  are  noted  for  rich 
production  combined  with  especial  economy  in  feed- 


FIRST    PRIZE    THREE-YEAR-OLD    GUERNSEY   BULL, 
PAN-AMERICAN   EXPOSITION 


62 


THE   BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


ing.  In  their  native  land  the  average  herd  is  ex- 
pected to  produce  5,000  pounds  of  milk  and  300 
pounds  of  butter  in  a  year.  In  this  country,  where 
the  animals  are  more  highly  fed,  many  herds  exceed 
6,000  pounds  of  milk  and  400  pounds  of  butter. 


GUERNSEY    COW,    "YEKSA    SUNBEAM."    RECORD,    I,OOO    POUNDS 
BUTTER   IN    ONE    YEAR 

Single  cows  have  records  of  over  14,000  pounds  of 
milk,  and  one  has  reached  an  equivalent  of  l,ooo 
pounds  of  butter  in  a  year  under  official  test.  The 
Guernsey  and  her  sister,  the  Jersey,  rank  as  the 
leading  butter  breeds  in  this  country. 

Holstein-Friesian. — These  black  and  white  ani- 
mals, introduced  from  the  provinces  of  North  Hol- 
land and  Friesland,  constitute  one  of  the  oldest  of 


SELECTING  THE   BREED  63 

the  dairy  breeds.  This  breed  excels  in  milk  produc- 
tion. The  animals  are  also  characterized  by  their 
large  frame,  fine  bone  (compared  with  the  size  of 
the  breed),  abundance  of  flesh,  silken  coat  and  ex- 
treme docility.  The  object  of  the  early  breeders 
was  to  produce  as  much  milk  and  beef  as  possible 
from  the  same  animal,  and  this  is  still  the  object  of 
many  of  the  breeders  of  these  animals  to-day.  Their 
big  bony  frames  are  usually  well  filled  out  and  are 
thus  readily  turned  into  beef.  The  calves  are  large 
at  birth  and  they  usually  grow  and  fatten  with  great 
rapidity.  For  this  reason  the  heifers  develop  and 
mature  early.  The  calves  are  usually  raised  with  lit- 
tle difficulty.  In  size  the  Holsteins  are  the  largest 
of  all  the  dairy  breeds.  Mature  cows  range  in 
weight  from  1,200  to  1,500  pounds  and  sometimes 
reach  1,800.  The  bulls  at  maturity  are  very  large, 
often  above  2,500  pounds,  and  usually  possess  a 
vigorous  constitution.  As  already  stated,  one  of  the 
prominent  characteristics  of  this  breed  is  the  large 
milk  production.  The  udder  is  often  of  extraordi- 
nary size  with  teats  of  good  form  and  well  placed. 
The  milk  veins  are  frequently  remarkably  developed. 
The  cows  are  generally  of  the  true  dairy  type. 
Records  are  numerous  of  cows  giving  an  average 
of  above  their  own  live  weight  in  milk  monthly  for 
over  twelve  consecutive  months,  and  there  are  au- 
thentic instances  of  daily  yields  of  100  pounds  or 
more  for  several  days  in  succession,  and  20,000  to 
30,000  pounds  of  milk  in  one  year.  Many  herds  pro- 
duce an  average  of  8,000  pounds  per  cow  a  year,  and 
some  10,000.  One  of  the  most  serious  defects  in 


64 


THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


this  breed  is  the  low  percentage  of  fat  and  total 
solids  in  the  milk.  The  cows  have  been  favorites 
for  dairymen  doing  a  milk  supply  business,  but  in 
numerous  instances  their  product  has  been  below 
the  standards  fixed  by  State  and  municipal  laws. 


HOLSTEIN    BULL.       COUNT    PAUL    DE    KOL,    2D,       FIRST    PRIZE 
THREE-YEAR-OLD,    PAN-AMERICAN    EXPOSITION 

It  should  be  stated,  however,  that  many  breeders 
are  working  toward  a  higher  fat  content  with  con- 
siderable success,  and  many  families  of  this  breed 
produce  milk  which  exceeds  4.0  in  fat  and  are  profit- 
able butter  producers.  The  fat  globules  are  small 
and  of  uniform  size,  separating  slowly  by  the  grav- 
ity method  of  creaming  and  carrying  very  little 


SELECTING    THE    BREED  65 

color.  There  are  several  yearly  records  of  butter 
production  of  herds  exceeding  400  pounds  per  head, 
and  single  cows  have  exceeded  600  pounds.  The 
Holstein  cow  Aggie  Cornucopia  Pauline  has  an 
official  7-day  record  of  27.459  pounds  of  butter  fat, 


HOLSTEIN  COW,      COLANTHA  4TH  JOHANNA,     CHAMPION 

BUTTER    COW    OF   THE    WORLD.    1,164.63  POUNDS 

IN   A   YEAR 

equivalent  to  32.03  pounds  of  butter.  To  do  their 
best  this  breed  must  have  an  abundance  of  rich  food 
without  the  necessity  of  much  exertion  to  obtain  it. 
As  stated  at  the  outset,  the  dairyman  must  select  the 
breed  best  suited  to  his  conditions.  The  Holsteins 
with  the  Ayrshires  rank  as  the  foremost  milk  breeds. 
Jersey. — This  is  one  of  the  most  important  and 
widely  distributed  of  the  dairy  breeds  of  cattle  in 


66  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

this  country.  Developed  on  the  Island  of  Jersey,  it 
is  delicate  and  gentle  with  well-established  charac- 
teristics. The  animals  are  light,  quick  and  graceful 
in  movement,  and  are  often  spoken  of  as  "deer-like" 
in  appearance  and  action.  The  color  is  variable 
from  black  to  brown  and  tan  to  fawn.  The  blood 
of  the  Jersey  is  almost  unmistakably  shown  by  signs 
or  markings,  whether  pure  bred  or  grade.  A  valu- 
able characteristic  of  this  breed  is  prepotency  or 
transmission  of  form,  constitution  and  function  to 
offspring,  these  having  been  established  by  many 
generations  of  pure  breeding.  The  Jersey  is  noted 
as  a  butter  breed.  The  milk  produced  is,  as  a  rule, 
richer  in  fat  and  solids  than  that  of  any  other  breed, 
but  the  quantity  yielded,  on  the  other  hand,  is  apt 
to  be  lower.  The  milk  from  Jerseys  often  contains 
over  6  per  cent,  of  fat,  and  the  average  for  the  breed 
is  close  to  5  per  cent.  The  fat  globules  in  the  milk 
are  large,  causing  the  cream  to  separate  quickly, 
which  is  quite  an  advantage,  particularly  where  the 
gravity  system  is  used.  The  Jerseys  are  second  only 
to  the  Guernseys  in  the  abundant  secretion  of  color- 
ing matter,  which  shows  itself  in  the  skin  and  on 
various  parts  of  the  body  and  gives  a  rich  tint  to  milk 
and  cream  and  a  golden  hue  to  the  butter. 

The  typical  Jersey  generally  has  a  high-strung 
nervous  temperament.  They  must  therefore  receive 
good  care  if  best  results  are  to  be  secured.  That  is, 
they  cannot  be  abused  as  to  feed  and  treatment 
without  injury.  They  are  therefore  most  likely  to 
prove  a  success  in  the  hands  of  intelligent  dairymen 
who  take  an  interest  in  their  stock.  The  dairy  type 


SELECTING   THE   BREED  67 

predominates,  showing  a  wedge-shaped,  deep- 
chested  body,  good  digestive  organs,  large  full 
udders,  well-developed  milk  veins,  and  a  soft,  mel- 
low skin.  The  cows  are  gentle  and  docile  when  well 
treated,  while  the  bulls  have  a  reputation  of  being 
hard  to  handle  and  sometimes  ugly  and  dangerous. 
This,  however,  depends  largely  upon  their  early 
treatment  and  training.  While  the  Jerseys  are  the 
smallest  in  average  size  of  the  noted  dairy  breeds, 
certain  strains  of  Jerseys  reach  a  good  weight. 

On  their  native  island  the  Jerseys  have  been  bred 
especially  and  almost  exclusively  for  butter.  In 
America  breeders  have  striven  with  some  degree  of 
success  to  increase  the  milk  yield  while  maintaining 
its  high  quality.  The  cows  are  noted  for  persistence 
in  milking,  making  a  long  season  of  profit.  Many 
herds  average  5,000  to  6,000  pounds  of  milk  an- 
nually, and  single  cows  have  reached  14,000  and 
even  16,000  pounds.  Jersey  butter  records  usually 
make  a  good  showing,  and  good  herds  average  350 
to  400  pounds  of  butter  annually,  and  single  'cows 
have  exceeded  600  pounds.  Confirmed  tests  of  20 
pounds  of  butter  in  seven  days  have  been  recorded. 

The  man  more  important  than  the  breed. — It  is 
possible  to  select  any  one  of  the  principal  breeds  of 
dairy  cows  and  consider  it  from  the  most  favorable 
standpoint  and  make  it  appear  to  be  the  best  breed. 
On  the  other  hand  it  is  just  as  easy  to  discuss  these 
same  breeds  individually  from  their  most  unfavor- 
able standpoint  and  make  them  appear  very  unde- 
sirable for  dairy  purposes.  The  writer,  however, 
has  tried  to  give  them  all  fair  treatment.  The  fact 


68 


THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


is,  there  are  most  excellent  cows  in  all  of  these 
breeds,  and  success  will  depend  more  upon  the  in- 
telligence of  the  man  behind  the  breed  who  studies 
his  conditions,  than  upon  the  breed  itself. 

Some  other  breeds  that  have  marked  dairy  quali- 


A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  THE  JERSEY  BREED 

ties. — The  principal  dairy  breeds  have  already  been 
described,  but  a  discussion  of  this  question  would 
not  be  complete  without  a  brief  mention  of  some  of 
the  less  prominent  yet  very  useful  breeds  of  animals. 
As  the  subjects  in  this  book  are  being  discussed 
principally  from  a  business  standpoint,  the  writer 
wishes  to  state  that  some  dairymen  will  no  doubt 


SELECTING   THE    BREED  69 

be  able  to  reap  quite  as  much  profit  from  some  of 
the  following  breeds,  under  certain  conditions,  as 
from  the  breeds  which  are  more  strictly  of  the  dairy 
type. 

Brown  Swiss. — This  dairy  breed  par  excellence  in 
Switzerland,  and  having  a  fine  reputation  through- 
out Europe,  has  not,  however,  much  prominence  in 
this  country.  The  animals  are  strong,  muscular  and 
active  and  well  adapted  to  the  mountains  of  Switzer- 
land, many  of  which  are  covered  to  their  tops  with 
fine  rich  herbage.  The  cattle  graze  in  the  valleys  in 
winter  and  on  the  mountains  in  summer.  This 
breed  may  be  placed  in  the  second  class  as  to  size, 
among  the  distinctly  dairy  breeds.  The  color 
shades  from  dark  to  light  chestnut  brown,  and  often 
approaches  a  mouse  color.  They  are  strong,  fleshy, 
compact,  well  proportioned,  hardy  and  necessarily 
good  mountain  climbers.  They  have  a  straight 
back,  heavy  legs  and  neck,  giving  a  general  appear- 
ance of  coarseness,  although  in  fact  they  are  small 
boned,  have  a  fine  silky  coat  and  other  attractive 
dairy  points.  The  calves  are  large,  often  weighing 
over  100  pounds  at  birth.  They  mature  fast  and 
have  healthy  constitutions.  Both  bulls  and  cows 
are  docile  and  easily  managed.  If  any  breed  has 
a  claim  to  the  class  of  so-called  "general  purpose" 
animals  the  Brown  Swiss  probably  approaches  it  the 
nearest.  Being  developed  originally  as  a  dairy 
breed,  Brown  Swiss  cows  yield  a  generous  flow  of 
milk  and  hold  out  well.  Good  specimens  average 
6,000  pounds  of  milk  a  year,  and  in  single  instances 
have  reached  10,000.  The  milk  tests  from  3.5  to  4.0 


7O  THE    BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

fat.  At  the  Chicago  Show  in  1891,  one  cow  of  this 
breed  made  an  average  daily  record  for  three  days 
of  81.7  pounds  of  milk  containing  3.11  pounds  of  fat, 
equivalent  to  more  than  3^2  pounds  of  butter  in  one 
day.  These  cattle  also  make  good  beef.  They  are 


A   TYPICAL   BROWN    SWISS   COW 

almost  always  full  fleshed  and  readily  fattened  when 
not  in  milk.  The  meat  is  said  to  be  of  fine  quality. 
Devon. — The  native  home  of  this  thrifty  and 
attractive  breed  of  deep  red  cattle  is  on  the  high- 
lands of  Devonshire  in  southwestern  England.  The 
Devonshires  are  regarded  as  one  of  the  oldest  and 
purest  breeds,  and  it  is  believed  that  they  were 
among  the  very  first  cattle  brought  across  the 
Atlantic,  reaching  New  England  in  the  year  1623. 


SELECTING   THE    BREED  Jl 

Among  the  characteristics  of  the  Devon  are  attrac- 
tive appearance,  compactness,  hardiness,  activity, 
intelligence,  docility,  and  tendency  to  fatten.  The 
prevailing  red  varies  from  a  dark  rich  color  to  pale 
chestnut.  The  hair  is  soft,  fine  and  often  curls 
closely  on  the  neck,  shoulder  and  face.  As  a  result 
of  centuries  of  careful  breeding  the  Devon  has  been 
brought  to  a  fixed  type  and  is  not  subject  to  great 
variations.  They  are  of  medium  size,  easy  keepers, 
active,  hardy,  thriving  on  meager  pasture  and  in 
hilly  and  mountainous  regions.  As  a  breed  Devons 
do  not  yield  large  quantities  of  milk  and  are  not 
persistent  milkers.  Certain  families  bred  for  dairy 
purposes  have  made  fair  milk  records,  and  some 
herds  average  4,000  pounds  per  year.  Single  ani- 
mals have  produced  50  pounds  of  milk  in  a  day. 
The  milk  is  fairly  rich  in  quality,  ranking  next  to  the 
Channel  Island  breeds  in  percentage  of  fat,  total 
solids  and  high  color.  Comparatively  little  attention 
has  been  given  to  their  milking  qualities,  as  they  are 
regarded  by  the  majority  of  breeders  as  more  par- 
ticularly a  beef  producer.  The  beef  is  highly  prized, 
bringing  the  top  price.  The  steers  are  special  favor- 
ites as  working  cattle.  The  calves  are  always  fat 
and  lusty,  showing  a  vigorous  growth.  The  best 
friends  of  this  breed  claim  there  are  great  possibili- 
ties in  developing  the  dairy  qualities  of  these 
animals. 

Dutch  belted. — During  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  the  cattle  interests  of  Holland  were  in  the 
most  thrifty  condition  and  breeding  had  become  a 
science,  a  breed  was  developed  known  in  that 


72  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

country  as  "Lakenfeld"  cattle,  but  called  Dutch 
Belted  in  this  country.  Wonderful  and  remarkable 
as  it  may  appear,  the  Dutch  Belted  cattle  were  bred 
true  to  color,  a  pure  black  with  a  continuous  white 
belt  around  their  body,  beginning  behind  the 
shoulders  and  extending  nearly  to  the  hips.  This 
sharp  contrast  of  color  makes  an  imposing  contrast 
and  a  beautiful  sight  when  several  of  these  animals 
are  seen  grazing  together.  Feats  in  breeding  by  the 
Hollanders,  particularly  for  contrasts  in  color,  were 
accomplished  that  would  defy  our  modern  breeders, 
and  they  have  been  classed  as  lost  arts.  For  several 
centuries  they  were  owned  and  controlled  by  the 
nobility,  keeping  them  pure  and  limiting  their  num- 
ber to  their  ownership.  Importations  were  first 
made  about  the  middle  of  the  present  century. 
Their  form  approaches  the  dairy  type  and  they  pos- 
sess many  of  the  qualifications  of  an  ideal  dairy  ani- 
mal. They  are  docile,  hardy  and  vigorous  and  have 
a  very  compact  form.  As  milk  producers  the  belted 
cattle  seem  to  give  good  satisfaction,  though  the 
milk  is  not  above  the  average  in  quality.  Leading 
breeders  claim  for  them  that  they  are  thrifty,  practi- 
cable and  profitable.  One  herd  of  37  is  reported  as 
averaging  5,840  pounds  of  milk  containing  3.6  per 
cent.  fat.  Single  cows  have  exceeded  8,000  pounds 
of  milk  in  a  year.  This  breed  is  not  numerous, 
either  in  Europe  or  America. 

Shorthorns  as  dairy  cows. — This  breed  has  made 
a  great  influence  upon  the  live  stock  of  England  and 
was  the  first  pure  breed  to  make  an  impress  upon 
the  cattle  of  the  United  States,  and  importations 


SELECTING  THE   BREED  73 

date  back  as  far  as  1783.  The  climax  of  the  Short- 
horn "boom"  came  in  1873,  when  109  head  were  sold 
at  auction  in  three  hours  for  $380,000.  One  cow  at 
this  time  sold  for  $40,600. 

The  aim  of  most  breeders  of  Shorthorns  has  been 
to  secure  early  maturity,  size,  form  and  beef  produc- 
ing qualities.  "All  is  useless  that  is  not  beef"  is 
the  motto  generally  followed.  The  Shorthorn  is  a 
beef  breed  and  has  been  so  for  many  generations, 
but  there  have  always  been  good  dairy  cows  among 
them,  and  in  England  especially  strains  and  families 
have  been  kept  somewhat  distinct  and  known  as 
milking  Shorthorns.  A  few  breeders  in  the  United 
States  have  followed  this  example  and  enough  were 
found  in  1893  to  make  up  a  herd  which  entered  the 
famous  dairy-cow  test  at  the  Columbian  Exposition, 
and  there  made  a  most  creditable  record.  Although 
they  can  hardly  claim  to  belong  to  the  class  of 
special  dairy  breeds,  they  are  entitled  to  recognition 
in  these  pages.  In  point  of  size  the  Shorthorns  are 
probably  the  largest  among  pure  breeds  of  cattle. 
The  weight  of  the  cows  ranges  from  1,200  to  1,600 
pounds  and  the  bulls  from  2,000  to  3,000.  The 
colors  of  the  breed  have  always  been  various  blend- 
ings  of  red  and  white.  In  the  best  milking  types  the 
cows  are  rough  and  angular  in  outline,  with  large, 
hairy  udders  and  good-sized,  straight  teats  well 
placed.  The  animals  are  quiet  and  kind  in  disposi- 
tion. 

The  Shorthorns  when  first  brought  to  America 
received  the  name  of  "the  milk  breed, "and  even  now 
the  breed  has  inherent  dairy  qualities  which  careful 


74 


THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


breeders  successfully  develop.  Among  the  early 
records  6  to  9  gallons  of  milk  a  day  was  not  uncom- 
mon. At  the  Columbian  Exposition  the  best  Short- 
horn cow  gave  65  pounds  of  milk  in  one  day  and 
1,593  pounds  in  30  days,  yielding  62^2  pounds  of 
butter.  The  best  dairy  herds  of  this  breed  average 
6,000  to  7,000  pounds  of  milk  per  cow  annually  and 
300  pounds  of  butter.  Single  cows  have  exceeded 
10,000  pounds  of  milk  and  400  pounds  of  butter  in 


GOOD    TYPE   OF    DAIRY    SHORTHORNS 

one  year.  The  milk  of  this  breed  is  of  fair  quality, 
averaging  about  3.75  per  cent.  fat.  The  fat  globules 
are  of  medium  and  uniform  size,  so  that  cream  sepa- 
rates quite  readily.  The  milk  is  rather  pale  in  color. 
Polled  Durham. — This  is  simply  a  branch  or 
family  of  the  Shorthorn  breed,  but  from  the  fact  that 


SELECTING    THE    BREED  75 

they  have  become  so  fixed  in  type  and  in  the  potency 
of  the  hornless  feature,  they  have  been  allowed  a 
name  and  place  as  a  distinct  breed.  Animals  regis- 
tered as  Polled  Durhams,  however,  are  also  ad- 
mitted to  the  American  Shorthorn  Herd  Book. 
This  family  has  all  the  features  of  the  Shorthorn 
breed  except  that  they  are  hornless ;  this  feature  be- 
ing developed  through  sports  and  selection.  It  may 
be  said  that  this  is  the  only  breed  of  cattle  originat- 
ing in  America.  Its  foundation,  however,  goes  back 
to  England.  While  they  are  classed  as  beef  animals, 
the  milking  qualities  have  not  been  lost  sight  of  and 
among  them  are  some  excellent  milkers.  As  they 
practically  duplicate  the  "Shorthorns"  in  dairy  ca- 
pacity, a  separate  description  is  unnecessary. 

Red  Poll. — Hornless  or  polled  cattle  have  existed 
in  different  counties  in  England  from  time  imme- 
morial. The  modern  Red  Polled  cow  in  this  coun- 
try is  the  result  of  the  combination  of  several  strains 
of  polled  cattle,  and  it  is  the  aim  of  the  most  pro- 
gressive breeders  to  produce  a  cow  of  medium  size, 
blood-red  in  color,  of  fine  bone,  compact  form,  fat- 
tening easily  and  giving  a  fair  flow  of  moderately 
rich  milk.  In  other  words,  the  "general  purpose" 
cow  idea  is  kept  in  mind.  The  breed  is  compara- 
tively new.  Red  Polled  cattle  resemble  the  Devons 
almost  as  closely  as  Polled  Durhams  resemble  the 
Shorthorns,  yet  the  two  races  are  probably  not 
closely  related.  The  Red  Polls,  however,  are  some- 
what larger,  and  the  cows  as  a  rule  are  better 
milkers  than  the  Devons.  Their  meat  is  fine  grained 
and  of  high  quality.  As  dairy  animals  this  breed 


76 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


must  be  placed  in  the  second  class  with  the  other 
breeds  which  aim  to  serve  the  dual  purpose.  Being 
comparatively  few  in  number  in  this  country  there 
are  not  many  dairy  records  at  hand.  Records  of 
herds  averaging  6,000  to  7,000  pounds  of  milk  are 
reported,  and  single  cows  have  produced  12,000 
pounds.  The  milk  is  of  fair  quality,  averaging  about 
3.75  per  cent.  fat.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the 
above  records  are  from  select  herds  and  are  far 
above  the  average  for  the  breed. 


BREED  TESTS 

Comparative  yields  of  milk  and  butter  fat. — The 
following  statements,  taken  from  the  Report  of  the 
Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  for  1903,  show  the 
average  per  cent,  of  fat  and  production  of  milk  and 

Average  Per  Cent,  of  Fat  and  Production  of  Milk  and 

Butter  Fat   per   Breed — American   and   European 

Analyses  (Woll) 


BREED 

Fat  Tests 

Records  of  Yield 

0 

II 

|o 

£x 
P 

0 

*H      CO 

II 

K 

Ml_>>4^2 

pip 

0> 

=  *«2 
|g,Eg 

Jersey    

491 
191 
679 
370 
108 
50 
20 
50 
5 
5 
5 

Per  cent. 

4.98 
4.77 
3.28 
3.73 
3.84 
3.73 
3.78 
4.57 
3.40 
4.66 
3.99 

425 
151 
503 
275 
50 
50 
14 
27 
5 
5 
5 

Lbs. 
27.3 
29.7 
48.8 
43.5 
37.0 
37.3 
37.3 
13.2 
27.2 
22.3 
27.0 

Lbs. 
.38 
.42 
.60 
.62 
.42 
.39 
.41 
.60 
.92 
1.07 
1.08 

Guernsey 

Holstein-Friesian       

Shorthorn 

Ayrshire  

Red   Polled 

Brown  Swiss  

Devon 

Dutch  Belted  

Polled  Jersey 

French  Canadian  .  . 

SELECTING   THE   BREED 


77 


butter  fat  per  breed.  The  data  for  per  cent,  of  but- 
ter fat  in  the  table  which  follows  includes  tests  of 
the  milk  of  1,974  cows  and  the  data  for  milk  yield 
includes  tests  of  1,510  cows. 

This  summary  includes  a  large  number  of  Euro- 
pean analyses  of  milk,  especially  of  milk  from  Short- 
horn, Jersey,  and  Holstein  cows,  and  it  may  there- 
fore be  argued  that  the  results  do  not  fairly  repre- 
sent the  quality  and  yield  of  milk  produced  by 
American  cows  of  the  respective  breeds.  To  over- 
come this  criticism  all  available  analyses  of  milk  pro- 
duced by  purebred  American  dairy  cows  were  com- 
piled and  the  results  of  this  second  summarization 
are  shown  in  the  following  table,  which  includes  data 
for  881  cows  as  regards  the  fat  content  of  the  milk 
and  for  the  average  milk  yield  of  825  cows : 

Summary  of  American  Analyses  of  Samples  of  Milk  from 
Purebred  Cows  (Woll) 


BREED 

Fat  Test 

Records  of  Yield 

Number  of 
Cows 

P 

Number  of 
Cows 

fill 

JM 

164 
67 
502 
43 
33 
15 
14 
5 
28 
5 
5 

Per  cent. 
5.13 
4.87 
3.30 
3.58 
3.85 
3.84 
3.77 
3.40 
4.64 
4.66 
3.99 

153 
53 
493 
39 
18 
15 
14 
5 
25 
5 
5 

Lbs. 
24.5 
28.9 
48.9 
31.9 
27.7 
26.6 
37.3 
27.2 
11.8 
22.9 
27.0 

Lbs. 
1.26 
1.41 
1.61 
1.14 
1.07 
1.02 
1.41 
.92 
.55 
1.07 
1.08 

Guernsey 

Holstein-Friesian    
Shorthorn 

Ayrshire    

Red   Polled   

Brown  Swiss 

Dutch  Belted  

Devon    

Polled  Jersey 

French  Canadian  .. 

If  the  results  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  aver- 


7  THE   BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

age  daily  amounts  of  fat  produced  by  the  cows,  we 
note  that  the  Holstein-Friesian  cows  lead  the  list 
with  an  average  production  of  1.61  pounds  of  fat. 
The  other  breeds  follow  in  this  order:  Guernsey 
and  Brown  Swiss,  1.41  pounds  of  butter  fat;  Jersey, 
1.26  pounds;  Shorthorn,  1.14  pounds;  French  Cana- 
dian, i. 08  pounds;  Ayrshire  and  Polled  Jersey,  1.07 
pounds;  Red  Polled,  1.02  pounds,  etc. 

The  data  obtained  for  the  Holstein-Friesian  cows 
differs  somewhat  in  their  character  from  those  for 
cows  of  the  other  breeds  from  the  fact  that  the  Hoi- 
stein  tests  in  a  large  majority  of  cases  were  of  short 
duration,  i.e.,  mostly  seven  days,  and  were  con- 
ducted under  a  more  or  less  forced  system  of  feed- 
ing. The  large  number  of  animals  contributing  to 
the  average  data  for  this  breed  renders  the  figures 
valuable  as  an  expression  of  the  average  quality  of 
milk  of  American  Holsteins  and  their  production  of 
milk  and  butter  fat  at  this  time.  The  latter  figures 
may  be  considered  maximum  when  the  performance 
of  a  large  number  of  animals  is  summarized.  The 
data  given  in  the  column  headed  "Per  cent,  of  fat" 
represent,  as  we  believe,  very  accurately  the  aver- 
age quality  of  milk  produced  by  purebred  cows  of 
the  different  dairy  breeds  in  this  country  at  the  pres- 
ent time. 


MILK  RECORDS  79 

CHAPTER  II 
MILK  RECORDS 

Value  of  milk  records. — Records  of  the  perform- 
ances of  dairy  cows  form  the  only  accurate  and  safe 
basis  for  judging  their  value.  No  person  is  able  to 
go  into  a  good-sized  herd  and  pick  out  all  of  the 
best  cows  by  examination.  Records  are  absolutely 
necessary  to  determine  profit  and  loss.  In  one  com- 
munity, where  the  dairymen  had  the  same  soil  and 
the  same  market,  it  was  shown  that  one  made  $2.50 
for  every  dollar  invested  in  feed,  while  his  neighbor 
lost  50  cents.  This  difference  was  due  almost  en- 
tirely to  a  lack  of  business  methods.  It  is  the  con- 
stant aim  of  progressive  dairymen  to  improve  their 
herds,  and  such  improvement  must  depend  largely 
upon  culling  the  herd  and  getting  rid  of  the  unprofit- 
able animals.  From  the  breeder's  standpoint, 
records  are  especially  valuable  in  assisting  in  finding 
customers  for  their  stock.  Many  buyers  insist  upon 
seeing  records  of  performance  before  purchasing. 

A  record  is  also  of  great  help  to  the  feeder.  If 
he  knows  exactly  what  a  cow  is  doing  he  can  pre- 
pare the  ration  accordingly  and  often  feed  more 
economically.  Again,  a  daily  milk  record  enables 
a  dairyman  to  detect  the  approach  of  sickness  in  a 
cow  and  thus  to  take  steps  to  ward  it  off. 

Much  inspiration  is  obtained  from  keeping  a 
record,  and  nothing  gives  a  dairyman  more  satisfac- 
tion than  watching  the  improved  returns  from  his 
herd.  Many  of  the  State  experiment  stations  have 


80  THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

given  examples  of  the  importance  of  keeping  careful 
records  of  the  individual  cows,  and  thus  determining 
which  are  profitable  and  which  are  kept  at  a  loss. 

EXAMPLE  i. — At  the  Georgia  station  the  best  cow 
in  the  herd  gave  7,968  pounds  of  milk,  which  pro- 
duced butter  worth  $115.44,  while  the  poorest  cow 
in  the  same  herd  gave  only  2,788  pounds  of  milk, 
with  a  butter  value  of  $41.63. 

EXAMPLE  2. — At  the  Michigan  station  the  profit 
on  the  milk  from  different  cows  varied  from  $6.08 
to  $94-05. 

EXAMPLE  3. — At  the  New  Jersey  station  the  profits 
from  different  cows  varied  from  13  cents  to  $49.72 
when  milk  was  valued  at  $i  per  100  pounds. 

EXAMPLE  4. — At  the  Connecticut  (Storrs)  station, 
during  the  year  1903,  the  best  cow  gave  a  profit  of 
$54.72,  and  the  poorest  $2.76.  In  this  case  the  best 
cow  gave  a  profit  of  nearly  twice  that  of  the  average 
cow  in  the  herd. 

EXAMPLE  5. — At  the  World's  Columbian  Exposi- 
tion, Chicago,  the  cow  with  the  best  individual 
record  made  two  and  one-third  times  as  much  butter 
as  the  poorest  of  the  seventy-five. 

While  the  difference  between  the  best  and  poorest 
animals  in  the  examples  given  are  great,  the  poorest 
cows  reported  are  not  so  poor  as  many  of  those  kept 
by  individual  dairymen,  who  make  no  accurate  tests 
and  who  rarely  know  anything  of  what  each  animal 
is  actually  doing.  Strong  evidence  is  given  on  this 
point  by  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  which 
found,  after  testing  a  number  of  herds  in  the  State, 
that  nearly  every  one  proved  that  some  of  the  cows 


MILK    RECORDS  8 1 

produced  butter  enough  to  pay  a  handsome  profit 
to  the  owner,  while  others  that  required  the  same 
feed,  care  and  time  spent  in  milking,  did  not  make 
butter  enough  to  pay  for  the  food  they  ate.  One 
man  who  kept  twelve  cows  got  more  money  for  the 
milk  of  three  of  them  than  he  did  for  that  of  all  the 
other  nine  put  together. 

To  cite  an  example  of  a  single  dairyman  in  a 
Western  State,  eleven  heifers  in  his  herd  gave, 
during  the  first  milking  season,  2,807  pounds  of  but- 
ter, which  netted  20.4  cents  per  pound,  an  average 
of  $51  for  each  heifer.  With  an  allowance  of  $40 
for  feed,  he  had  a  net  average  profit  of  $11  per  head. 
In  the  absence  of  a  daily  record  he  might  have  been 
content  with  the  result  and  gone  on  in  blissful 
ignorance  of  the  fact  that  five  of  the  heifers,  instead 
of  giving  a  profit  of  $11  each,  actually  lost  for  him  an 
average  of  $8.20  each.  Neither  would  he  have 
known  that  six  of  the  heifers  gave  him  an  average 
profit  of  $27.  Further,  he  would  not  have  known 
that  if  he  had  not  been  the  unprofitable  owner  of 
the  five  poorest  heifers,  his  whole  profit,  instead  of 
being  $121,  would  have  been  $162,  or  $41  more 
profit  with  no  more  than  half  the  work.  The  last 
statement  is  the  most  important,  for  many  dairymen 
could  reduce  their  herd  one-half  (and  the  labor  and 
capital  as  well)  and  still  be  making  more  profit. 
This  is  the  great  lesson  which  the  dairy  farmer  needs 
to  learn  to-day,  for  it  is  the  foundation  of  profit  in 
dairy  farming. 

Accurate  records  necessary. — Guesswork  is  ex- 
pensive to  the  dairyman.  Even  the  best  judges  are 


82  THE    BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

not  able  to  pick  out  the  best  cow  in  a  herd  withou 
weighing  and  testing.     Farmers  know  the  good  an< 
poor  milkers  in  their  herds  in  a  general  way,  bu 
only  a  few  breeders,  whether  of  common  or  pure 
bred   stock,   use   the   scales   or   fat   test   to   supply 
definite  knowledge.     When  the  milk  is  not  weighe< 
the  amount  is  almost  sure  to  be  overestimated.    Th< 
fact  that  a  cow  gives  12  to  15  quarts  of  milk  a  day 
at  a  certain  time  does  not  prove  that  she  will  giv 
5,000  pounds  in  a  year.     She  must  be  fed  and  care< 
for  during  the  entire  twelve  months,  and  the  profi 
or  loss  depends  upon  what  she  will  produce  during 
the  entire  year.    Even  dairymen  who  have  bred  an< 
handled  their  own  cows   are  not  able   to  estimat 
their   yearly   yield    of    milk,    and    those    who    hav 
attempted  it  have  usually  come  wide  of  the  mark 
In  one  instance  reported,  a  dairyman  before  begin- 
ning his  test  made  a  note  of  the  joint  opinion  of  him- 
self and  his  sons  who  had  done  the  milking  in  the 
herd  for  years,  as  to  the  half  dozen  best  cows  in  the 
herd,  and  an  estimate  of  their  season's  milk  yield. 
When  the  year's  record  was  completed  it  was  found 
that,  in  order  of  actual  merit,  the  cows  stood  thus : 
First  the  fifth ;  second  a  cow  not  on  his  merit  list ; 
third   his   fourth ;  fourth   his  first ;   fifth   his   sixth ; 
sixth  like  the  second,  and  his  second  and  third  still 
lower   on   the   list.     These   facts   were   verified   by 
subsequent    records.       The    records     showed    this 
owner*  further   that  about  one-fourth   of  his   cows 
were  being  kept  at  a  loss,  while  others  barely  paid 
their  way. 

The  record  of  the  herd  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost 


MILK    RECORDS  83 

importance.  The  highest  degree  of  success  cannot 
be  attained  unless  dairymen  know  accurately  the 
production  of  each  individual  cow.  This  is  neces- 
sary as  a  guide  to  rational  treatment  and  to  insure 
the  greatest  profit.  The  record  should  include  not 
only  the  dairy  performance,  bdt  a  concise  history 
and  description  of  each  animal.  The  former  re- 
quires a  daily  record  of  the  milk  yield  of  every  cow 
and  a  fat  test  of  several  consecutive  milkings,  if  ac- 
curate records  are  to  be  secured.  Samples  for  this 
test  may  be  mixed  and  this  "composite  sample" 
tested,  thus  obtaining  the  average.  The  method  is 
easily  learned  and  practiced.  With  the  percentage 
of  fat  taken  periodically  and  a  summary  of  the  daily 
yield  of  milk,  the  dairyman  has  a  full  record  of  every 
cow  in  his  herd.  To  give  still  more  complete  knowl- 
edge there  should  also  be  a  record,  at  least  approxi- 
mately accurate,  showing  the  cost  of  the  food  con- 
sumed by  each  cow,  so  that  the  economy  of  the  pro- 
duction may  be  shown. 

Records  easily  kept. — Records  are  far  more  easily 
kept  than  are  generally  supposed,  and  the  time  and 
cost  of  keeping  them  for  each  cow  is  so  small  as  to 
be  only  a  trifle  in  comparison  with  their  value.  The 
length  of  time  required  to  weigh  and  sample  the 
milk  will  depend  much  upon  the  quickness  of  the 
individual  doing  the  work.  Ordinarily,  however,  it 
has  been  the  author's  experience  that  one-fourth 
minute  per  cow  at  each  milking,  or  one-half  minute 
per  day,  is  sufficient  to  record  the  weights.  When 
samples  are  taken  on  two  successive  days  in  each 
month,  which  is  becoming  a  common  practice,  this 


FORM  FOR  DAILY  MILK  RECORD, 


NAME 
OF 
COW 

PRINCESSA 

REGENA 
4tk. 

Q. 

BEAUTY 

Q. 
IDEAL 

QUEEN 

ALTA 

SEBOLT 

E. 
JILIX 

EVE5TA 
6th. 

MONTH 

AM. 

P.M. 

A.M 

P.M. 

AM 

P.M. 

AM 

P.M. 

A.M 

RM. 

A.M. 

P.M. 

AM 

P.M. 

AM 

PM 

A.M 

P.M. 

1 

Ibs. 

Ibs 

Ibs. 

Ibs 

Iba 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

!0 

II 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

TOTAL 

MILK    RECORDS  85 

will  require  practically  the  same  time  daily  per  cow 
as  weighing  the  milk.  An  hour  or  two  some  rainy 
day  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  make  the  Babcock 
test  for  percentage  of  fat.  With  this  amount  of  time 
expended  the  farmer  can  have  a  reasonably  accurate 


KEEPING  A   CAREFUL  RECORD  OF  THE  WEIGHT   OF   MILK 

dairy  record  of  every  cow  in  his  herd.  Considering 
the  time  consumed  in  doing  this  work,  and  the  small 
expense  involved  in  securing  record  sheets,  scales, 
and  some  simple  form  of  the  Babcock  tester,  it  is 
surprising  that  more  dairymen  do  not  test  their 
herds.  After  keeping  records  the  farmer  will  find 
that  he  has  made  many  surprising  mistakes  in  his 
estimates  of  the  relative  value  of  his  cows. 

The  Babcock  test. — While  full  directions  usually 
accompany  the  apparatus  as  purchased  it  will  not 
be  out  of  place  to  state  briefly  here  the  principles  of 


86  THE    BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

the  test  and  how  it  is  operated.  The  outfit  consists 
of  a  pipette  for  measuring  the  milk  sample,  an  acid 
measure,  test  bottles  graduated  to  10  per  cent.,  and 
a  centrifugal  machine  for  whirling  the  bottles  and 
contents  at  high  speed.  Small  machines  are  easily 
operated  by  hand,  while  large  ones  require  power. 

The  important  thing  at  the  outset  is  to  secure  a 
fair  sample  of  the  milk  to  be  tested.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  thoroughly  mixing  the  milk  by  repeatedly 
pouring  it  from  one  vessel  to  another.  It  is  then  in 
condition  to  sample.  The  sampling  may  be  done  by 
using  a  small  dipper.  Owing  to  variations  in  the 
composition  of  the  milk  from  day  to  day  and  in  the 
morning's  and  evening's  milk  of  the  same  day,  it  is 
necessary  to  collect  several  samples  if  accurate  re- 
sults are  to  be  secured.  These  may  be  brought  to- 
gether for  two  or  three  days  and  made  into  a  com- 
posite sample  before  the  test  is  made.  A  few  drops 
of  formalin  or  a  little  potassium  bichromate  may  be 
used  to  keep  the  sample  sweet.  The  composite 
sample  thus  obtained  should  be  thoroughly  mixed. 
The  pipette  is  then  drawn  nearly  full  of  milk  by 
placing  the  mouth  at  the  end ;  the  forefinger  is  then 
quickly  placed  over  the  top  end  of  the  pipette  as  it 
is  removed  from  the  mouth ;  the  pipette  is  held  on  a 
level  with  the  eye,  while  the  milk  is  allowed  to  run 
out  slowly  until  its  surface  is  even  with  the  17.6 
mark.  The  pipette  is  then  inserted  far  enough  into 
the  test  tube  to  allow  the  milk  to  run  in  without 
spilling.  After  the  pipette  has  drained,  the  last  drop 
is  blown  from  it  and  the  sample  is  ready  for  the  acid. 

The  ordinary  commercial  sulphuric  acid,  having  a 


MILK   RECORDS  S/ 

specific  gravity  of  about  1.82,  is  used  in  making  the 
test.  It  should  be  used  at  a  temperature  ranging 
from  50°  to  70°  F.  and  always  kept  in  a  tightly  stop- 
pered bottle.  Care  must  be  taken  in  mixing  the  acid 
with  the  milk ;  17.5  c.  c.  are  measured  into  the  acid 
graduate  and  slowly  turned  into  the  test  tube  in 
such  a  way  that  it  runs  down  on  the  inside  of  the 
bottle  rather  than  directly  into  the  milk,  to  prevent 
burning  the  milk  solids.  A  complete  mixture  is 
effected  by  holding  the  bottle  by  the  neck  and  giv- 
ing it  a  gentle  rotary  motion.  The  action  of  the 
acid  causes  a  rapid  increase  in  temperature,  at  the 
same  time  dissolving  all  the  non-fatty  solids  of  the 
milk  and  making  possible  a  rapid  and  complete  sepa- 
ration of  the  fats. 

The  test  bottles  and  contents  are  now  placed  in  the 
centrifugal  machine  and  whirled  at  the  required 
speed,  which  varies  with  the  size  of  the  machine. 
The  bottles  assume  a  horizontal  position,  and  as  the 
fats  are  the  lighter  part  of  the  milk  they  rise  to  the 
surface.  With  the  hand  machine  full  speed  should 
be  maintained  for  five  or  six  minutes  for  the  first 
whirling,  after  which  enough  hot  water  should  be 
added  to  the  contents  of  the  bottles  to  float  the  fat 
within  the  limits  of  the  graduated  scale  on  the  neck 
of  the  test  bottle.  The  bottles  are  whirled  again  for 
two  or  three  minutes  at  full  speed,  after  which  they 
should  be  placed  in  hot  water  (temperature  125°  to 
140°  F.)  to  keep  the  fat  in  a  clear  liquid  state  for 
reading.  If  when  managed  in  this  way  clots  of  curd 
or  other  matter  are  mingled  with  the  fat,  making  the 
reading  uncertain,  the  difficulty  can  usually  be 


88 


THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


FRONT 


LONGITUDINAL 
SECTION 


CROSS  5ECTION  ^GLASS-- 

ADJUSTABLE RECORD  BOARD  DESIGNED  BY  THE  AUTHOR 


MILK   RECORDS  89 

avoided  by  adding  the  hot  water  in  two  portions, 
filling  the  bottles  at  first  only  to  the  neck,  and  after 
whirling  about  one  minute  adding  sufficient  hot 
water  to  bring  the  fat  into  the  graduated  neck,  after 
which  the  bottle  should  be  whirled  and  the  fat 
measured. 

If  a  steam-power  machine  is  used  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  place  the  bottles  in  hot  water. 

The  percentage  of  fat  is  determined  by  the  grad- 
uated scale  on  the  test  tube.  A  pair  of  dividers  or 
small  compasses  (Fig.  4)  can  be  used  to  good  ad- 
vantage in  reading  the  results.  The  two  points  are 
carefully  adjusted,  so  they  exactly  enclose  the  fat 
column.  The  lower  point  is  then  placed  at  the  zero 
mark ;  the  other  point  will  then  indicate  the  exact 
reading. 

The  result  obtained  gives  the  percentage  of  butter 
fat  in  the  milk.  To  determine  how  many  pounds  of 
butter  a  cow  is  producing,  multiply  the  pounds  of 
milk  produced  by  the  percentage  of  butter  fat,  and 
multiply  the  result  by  I  1/6. 

EXAMPLE  :  24  (pounds  milk)  X  0.04  (per  cent,  fat) 
=0.96.  (pound  fat)  X  I  1/6=  1.12  (pounds  butter). 

Record  board. — The  accompanying  cut  (page  88) 
represents  a  record  board  designed  by  the  author  at 
the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station.  A  record  sheet 
of  sufficient  size  to  include  the  weight  of  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  milk  of  each  cow  in  the  herd  for  a 
month  is  attached  to  this  board  by  means  of  thumb 
tacks.  Two  panes  of  glass  (a-a)  are  set  in  the  frame 
in  front  of  the  record  sheet  with  a  space  (b)  of 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  between  them  for  entering 


90  THE   BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

the  record.  The  record  board  is  so  constructed  that 
the  front  frame  can  be  lowered  each  day  to  enter 
the  new  record  by  adjusting  the  pin  (c)  which  holds 
it  in  place.  It  has  the  advantage  of  keeping  the 
record  sheet  clean  and  in  condition  for  permanent 
filing.  The  glass  can  be  readily  cleaned  with  a  moist 
sponge. 

Methods  of  estimating  records. — Several  methods 
of  estimating  yearly  records  from  a  few  weighings 
and  tests  have  been  proposed.  As  previously  stated, 
however,  the  only  absolutely  accurate  way  to  tell 
the  amount  of  milk  and  butter  fat  produced  by  a 
cow  is  to  weigh  and  test  the  milk  at  every  milking, 
Cows  vary  so  much  in  the  amount  and  quality  of 
their  milk  from  one  milking  to  another,  owing  to 
various  causes,  many  of  which  are  uncontrollable, 
that  entirely  accurate  results  cannot  be  secured  by 
weighing  and  testing  the  milk  secured  at  a  few 
milkings  and  using  the  results  as  a  basis  for  estimat- 
ing the  total  production  for  a  lactation  period,  or 
even  for  a  month.  Many  dairymen,  however,  do 
not  feel  that  they  can  take  the  time  to  secure  daily 
records ;  nor  is  this  necessary  if  it  is  simply  desired 
to  obtain  a  reasonably  accurate  estimate  of  a  cow's 
performance  at  the  end  of  the  year.  An  approximate 
record  is  sufficient  for  comparing  one  cow  with  an- 
other or  for  determining  whether  a  cow  is  up  to  the 
profit  standard. 


THE   YIELD   OF   MILK 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  YIELD  OF  MILK 

Raising  the  standard. — It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  average  production  of  milk  and  butter  per 
cow  in  the  United  States  has  been  increasing  slowly 
yet  constantly  from  one  decade  to  another.  The 
following  data  shows  the  census  returns  from  1850 
to  1900: 

Average   Production  per   Cow  in  the   United   States 


TEAK 

Milk 

Butter 

YEAR 

Milk 

Butter 

1850  

Lbs. 
1  436 

Lbs. 
61 

1880  

Lbs. 

2,004 

Lbs. 
85 

1860 

1  505 

64 

1890 

2  709 

115 

1870  

1  772 

75 

1900  

3,646 

155 

While  this  increase  is  encouraging,  even  the 
record  for  the  year  1900  is  too  low  to  afford  the 
dairyman  much  profit  at  the  average  price  for  milk 
and  butter.  The  record  indicates  further  that  many 
dairymen  whose  herds  are  below  the  average  in 
production  must  be  keeping  cows  at  a  loss.  As  a 
matter  of  business,  then,  and  a  condition  essential 
to  best  results,  every  dairyman  should  study  the 
individuality  of  his  cows,  set  a  standard,  and  main- 
tain it  by  promptly  disposing  of  the  animals  which 
fail  to  attain  it,  unless  he  has  reason  to  believe  that 
an  animal  will  make  a  better  record  in  the  future. 
When  the  standard  is  reached  it  should  be  grad- 
ually but  persistently  raised.  This  can  be  done  by 


92  THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING  ^ 

keeping  a  record  of  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
milk  product,  knowing  approximately  the  cost  of 
production  and  systematically  weeding  out  the  herd. 
Many  dairymen  are  doing  this,  and  the  following 
examples  will  serve  as  illustrations : 

EXAMPLE  i. — The  Babcock  test  was  introduced  in 
a  creamery  and  one  dairyman  started  to  test  his 
cows  and  found  many  surprises.  The  butter  made 
per  cow  ranged  from  137  to  502  pounds,  and  the 
average  of  the  whole  herd  was  271  pounds.  Out  of 
the  64  cows  21  failed  to  come  up  to  his  standard  of 
200  pounds  annually  and  were  sold  to  the  butcher. 
The  second  year  the  standard  was  put  at  210  pounds 
and  15  cows  were  disposed  of.  The  third  year  the 
standard  was  put  at  225  pounds  and  he  had  but  6 
to  sell.  The  fourth  year  his  mature  cows  reached 
300  pounds  of  butter.  He  made  the  remark  that 
many  dairies  were  doing  better  than  his  and  that 
there  was  no  reason  why  any  dairyman  could  not  do 
as  well.  The  business  requires  time  and  persever- 
ance the  same  as  any  other. 

EXAMPLE  2. — A  dairyman  having  17  native  and 
grade  Shorthorn  cows  found  the  average  annual 
yield  of  butter  for  the  herd  to  be  125  pounds  per 
cow.  This  did  not  pay.  The  Babcock  test  was  then 
applied  and  in  four  years  (1886)  the  average  was 
raised  to  151  pounds  and  the  cash  returns  were  a 
trifle  over  $36.  In  1894  15  cows  averaged  220 
pounds  of  butter  and  $46.65  per  head.  In  1895  the 
herd  made  an  average  of  234^2  pounds  of  butter 
worth  $47.84.  During  1896  the  herd  averaged  301 
pounds  of  butter  and  $52.30  per  head.  And  in  1897 


THE  YIELD  OF  MILK  93 

the  herd  averaged  5,691  pounds  of  milk  and  343 
pounds  of  butter.  The  butter  sales  averaged  $60.28 
per  cow.  Dairy  records  aid  in  selection  and  increase 
the  profits. 

EXAMPLE  3. — The  owner  of  a  Holstein-Friesian 
herd  weighs  the  milk  daily  in  bulk  and  determines 
the  fat  in  each  cow's  milk  monthly ;  the  individual 
milkings  of  each  cow  being  weighed  for  the  first 
three  days  of  each  month,  a  composite  sample  taken 
and  the  per  cent,  of  fat  determined  by  the  Babcock 
test.  The  average  yield  of  milk  for  the  herd  for  a 
term  of  years  was  10,500  pounds  per  cow,  inclusive 
of  all  heifers.  The  yield  would  have  been  larger  but 
for  the  fact  that  the  herd  was  kept  young  by  selling 
the  older  cows.  The  average  yearly  per  cent,  of  fat 
for  the  herd  was  3.45,  and  the  yield  of  butter  was 
equivalent  to  422  pounds.  It  has  long  been  the  aim 
of  this  dairyman  to  have  his  herd  average  400 
pounds  of  butter  fat  per  year,  but  after  passing  the 
35o-pound  mark  it  has  been  found  more  difficult  to 
increase  the  yield.  However,  he  expects  to  reach  it 
in  time. 

High  records  can  be  reached  only  by  years  of  per- 
sistent effort  and  accurate  testing. 


94  THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


CHAPTER  IV 

RECORDS  OF  PUREBRED  COWS  OF 
SPECIAL  IMPORTANCE 

THE  keeping  of  accurate  records  is  perhaps  of 
more  importance  to  the  owner  and  breeder  of  pure- 
bred stock  than  to  dairymen  who  have  nothing  but 
grade  and  native  cows  in  their  herds.  With  the 
breeder  of  purebred  stock  the  products  of  the  dairy 
are  often  a  secondary  matter,  his  principal  business 
being  to  breed  and  sell  the  animals.  If  he  can  present 
creditable  records  of  the  cows  and  heifers  he  may 
have  for  sale  as  well  as  those  of  their  ancestors  for 
some  years  before,  naturally  these  will  assist  in  ad- 
vertising his  stock.  It  has  been  the  aim  in  the  follow- 
ing pages  to  present  records  of  purebred  herds  of 
various  breeds  kept  under  a  variety  of  conditions  of 
soil  and  climate,  and  it  is  hoped  that  these  will  be 
of  some  value  not  only  to  the  dairyman  but  to  the 
breeder  as  well.  The  data  given  in  connection  with 
the  one  hundred  or  more  herds  are  quite  full  and 
should  give  some  light  to  those  seeking  dairy  knowl- 
edge. They  represent  every-day  working  herds, 
give  the  kinds  of  feeds  employed  and  the  cost  of 
same,  and  show  what  results  may  be  expected  where 
good  rations  are  fed  and  business  methods  practiced 
generally. 


^ 

go 


g01 


8          88  88 


88 

S       V? 


83 


- 


SJ       = 


I-  i  S     I« 


-- 


l 


53   *  0      0      P  ?  O.2  g 

§31       to         K  Saras' 

£•=£  g  g-*g- 


pasBqo 
-anj  SMOQ 


-g      -g  . 

" 


fl      _i      •" 


00 
«O      "O 


00 

•d      13 


SMOQ  JO  'OJ£ 


;  I    1 


J>  «D  CO 


jo  ;SOQ 


88 
3    S 


88       88 


:    8    S 


Sifcl  I 


^    £|j*£2?.  s«  II  * 

if    s-a-S-s  §*•£-:  «?. 


3 
•"a  w 


. 


is. 

og 
1| 

if  • 

•ss . 
a 

£S£ 

£•§*: 


5  w      S     a-      cs      ' 

§     s  «  s  .a 

L-S    1    I^?S 

Sa  «   BS5S.- 

o  Q.     fl     S  ",a     a 

S5    S    8jsj*B 

5°  s  g=oa-.^ 
!s."  ^.0-lss 

s  ^  —  oj      tld^io 

S^S^     ^g1,^2 
2oS5     o^^^^a 

^SS    u    S^-0^ 


-d-d 
« 


ti  1  -• 


3.          3  OS  3      ^Sflp 


y 

>*» 

!  c  c3 
fU 


^  3    ^    P  ^j 


o     o 

-a    73 


O  fl 

•o       -^ 
o. 


SAVOQ 


pasiB£  SAYOQ 


03  03 

c;         aj 


oi      aj 


II  I 

PH  Q 


d  «  |    i 

>  "oii  t->     ® 

»**  cS  o    *o 

C  ^£2  3 

Q  O 


:     : 

:       i        :       «    «        :     :        :     :     : 

;       I 

•            rt                                                   M         :              :         :         • 

t-          oo 

CO  IH 


0 

0 

0                   0 

•* 

» 

00 

IflOO 

m 

<D           • 

e 

m 

m 

in             •* 

00 

CO 

CO 

coco 

CO 

«     : 

« 

% 

i 

1              1              115 

i 

i 

i 

1 

:    g 

1 

S     i 


oo      oo' 


00          TH  FH 


88 


88 


8    888    8 


88 


1s! 


°2 


1  §«  |f  a  I 

a     «3     -pJ 


L-  T      „        K*V  w  *._.  ^*  3        .2  Pt  «^4         "      •  r>  _T       *»  w  r^.'M—.         ^.^         Cjrfi 

MA^KX^yffA 


|eII|IIi|lE|lS=. 


4)  «3      ^ 


orn; 
corn 


P-rt    S^-2 
ig|     ^o-g 

«^a  g-38 


-0 


- 


•2    |«^Sa      S§l 
B«553^ 


!5   gt.- 


.2 


|2 


«*B« 


( 

i 

a  .      : 

;*|  | 

h 

5               £ 
a 

i      •         • 

'        O             O 

-d        -d 

o     a     c-d    '•*- 

!         3 

o     cS     c 
•d     -j;  a     n: 

> 
\ 

2 

g 

GO 

^             < 

CO      CO          < 

w5* 

i 

i 

IB 

4) 

;           ; 

co        :      co 

^41      :     v 

i  s 

OQ              a 
8             a 

CO 

5 

CO                          0 

co           oo 

4)              41 

oo       oo      co           or 

a,      &      &          Q 

co      oo           o 

: 

| 

a 

j                 j 

j        | 

o 

1     ' 

O 

c 

-c 

c 

« 

1             -1 

3 
W 

O             O 

•d        -d 

o      o      o         c 
-d     -d    -d        ^ 

00             C 

-d-d        -c 

. 

1 

a 

j 

:     • 

o     o 
•d    -d 


s     a       a 


smrenj 

JB^  83BJ9AV 


If 

n 


J9«ng 


3*1 

*" 


:       1    I 


t-  •* 


3H!W 


t»  ,_l  00  i-l 


AGO  3uid993I 
JO  JSOQ 


8    8 
S    S 


8    888 
S    3S8 


IB  i§  !!J l 

<D^"-^     .a     9>-5g     oJ 


ki  Is 

S-a    *s 


ais^a 

-tjga^ 


<aT  tio^^  <jj '"      oT  O<  aT_2  'aTk^ 

-—  I2«*       ^rt^_.^.    . 

-S    Sac's 


1     fl 
5     s 

6C       O 


is 

a  xjg 


!**«*  IV* 


-    i-   ^S 
IsiSsII 

p^p 


e! 


qsai^  uaqAi 


tc'S  a 

a-d  '-M 

IS  5 

OJ  ^ 


:     :  a 

:     :  -g 

•§    s  sri 

cj  OS  « 

fc  fe 


^      ^ 


I- 


pas^qo 
-jnj;  BMOO 


pseiBH  s^oo 


(H  H       >l       >H  H 


a>     <D     a> 

H       ^H       JH 


O  O       O       O  O 

«        is    -a    «c        •« 


ooo 
•o    -o    «o 


aSy  a3BJ9AV 


to     ko     to 


SMOO  jo  -OK 


~s~s 


S    S 


!§ 

§        : 

t-        <0 

in  oo 

t. 

-to                 i 

co 

CO 

CO        CO 

CO  CO 

eo 

CO-*           . 

1 

CO                IN 

S     : 

CO 

1      I 

0                         rt 

rH                          i— 

e§         o 

CO                »O 

oo"         i>^ 

§   §      § 

0*        r-T              0 

*           w'S 

oo*          i> 

«          «* 

8            S 

8 

8    88    8 

8       88 

8 

8       8 

S            g 

5        : 

t-         O  O'       <N 

c«      M*  in      IN 

§§       8SS 

S 

S       S 

Issi  I 

1  1 

g   I 

6  §  £•  -M     d 

cT      N^  to    •  .r 

S5  b"l 

^s    -e* 

i-"=c  a 

•Hi 

Ss  || 

-' 


.8 


-    p 


•*  sj     £  i*         i: 


a 


SI'S 

ttx 

I'5 


'5  ^  55 

Eaa^ 

Sfl-Oe 

j_,   SH    ^  r 

§88- 

o*  .  d  ' 

gl! 

SS8I 

f^^^r 


s  i  P 


si 


.s 

•            -4      1        • 

•      .2        •        • 

8        : 

^ 

&t«M          ^ 

•'  •    p        •        • 

a      : 

o            d^     S                c 

o          .  .     o        o 

+2         o 

^oi 

•e 

g*- 

02          ^          fa 

fa^ 

3 

tc 

^           :         : 

^                J         : 

<D 

^> 

01               01        ; 

fa 

fa 

Q 

"o 
I 

ooooooooo            oo 

y 

snrreut 

(BJI  93BI9AV 

jt-      10 

at            n 
in             in 

8 

in 

IO 

in 

in 

in 

83  1 

1             1 

1 

i     i 

1 

II 

_! 

• 

f>|      3HK 

•1  * 

MR.     ""I 
jao     oo 

1             1 

1 
in 

! 

!  5 

| 

;o  jsoo 

8 

8          8 

S          § 

8 

S 

8 

S 

s 

8 

fl     2 

2               s 

1    S'l 

•^•3 

a  -i     :;  B  -r  of 
feSSjiSS?-? 

gx^^- 

Winter  Rations 

3     gH     n            g 

*  &  §      1 

1     5gs 

T3     •                   fl 

2*     es»e 

PJ  Sj         C>  02  tj 

FO  O      ft  es  "5 
-"d          &^ 

a 

S|-d 
g8| 

^S3£^a  ° 

&r*  ~*  ^  rr'C^* 
t*  C*  ^       'S  Ci  **^ 

fi*S-B?S 
B  f  >.  C  6  E 

bran,  distillers'  grai 
nolasses  feed,  gluten 
ilage;  hay;  corn  stov 
mangels;  corn  on  c 
oats,  barley,  and 
meal. 

g.****         * 

il£.f«     s 

"IJsgga       * 

£s    bfl's    >-2® 
"c     ^ssd     *  21i 

G2   ^-2  g   flg-s 

-60           rt                &« 

O.ft  fefli'aS^ 
§3  3gc|3|g 

>-.2  ^  2  &2  c 

es-t-  C"      -M    . 
^3  O  "^-^      t*  O  ^^ 

w°  o      .CS 

,45-:0«e^s 

IaaPlll 

&  j» 

QC              CC 

^  a   55    ^ 

BO 

^     s 

a: 

8 

? 

o 

tJ^  c*  QQ      ^ 

Iga  § 

a^ 

B  a 

es  cS 

•^ 

ii 

05     • 

11 

§ 

a 

g 

a  ^ 

a:  a 

v  "3 

| 

_ 

fio..     S 

O..O 

S        a  a 

f3     - 

^ 

S3 

a 
• 

^"Sa 

o  a 

O  ti     • 

1      8& 

0  g 

I 

(H         t-i     .        •-        O        t- 

2    29    Sfl-0^2 
S    35    £§§23 

w    w       BG           — 

*w* 

Pasture; 
green  c( 
cerealin 

2           S  _, 
3           S.2 
to          "a  2  fcc 

rt              "  t£  Ci 

•  •  t-t 
O>  0) 

s-   > 

25 

5 

fl 

.s       s        ': 

1 

I                I 

j 

^     bJ 

*       a 

. 

a 

• 

q89J£  U9q^ 

.  sa 

^    •  «     "^ 

** 

O           O 

o 

fe^5 

-  g«     5 

g 

5 

paswp 

-arm  SMOO 

00 

m 

i 

<M 
S 

^        Bs 
«         QJ 

fe        fo 

1 

tn      a 

!02                     !/ 

02 

05 

02               05 

05 

P991T?H  SAVOJ 

6     a 

o             a 

0) 

N 

c 

>a'              .^ 

g 

f^ 

J 

;          * 

J 

1^^ 

«     c 

8?        c 

o 

0 

0           0 

O 

t*   ®  PQ 

^2    -c 

OB                  «C 

•d 

^ 

o 

a 

S 

hs 

, 

d 

i 

"»      O          <u              o              O 

0 

0            0 

0 

o     « 

£         *° 

t3 

•d 

•d 

w 

^ 

93y  93BJ9AV 

in      T 

g         ^ 

in 

(0 

eo         oo 

* 

S.VYOQ  JO  'OX 

Seor-             c*             o*             t-»             ^£2 

i 

O       OJ 

10       10 


o  in     o 

-t<  CO        Ol 
CO  CO         <N 


oBso 

<M  O 

" 


i    §  § 

in          KO"     to 


88 
o      m 

•*         CO 


a    S 


s  «-+,  .  o  o  ft 


fill  i  si  §  iiiiiiiiiiil  ilpiif  s  ill 


<D  fl 


i« :..  «i 


o 


fa  hay; 
chop. 

ds  bran. 


Soo 

c3  o 

Wft 


2JS. 
PI 


Pi  - 
^  fl 


|0       *0 
1°      (SW 


II 


I       I 
fa       fa 


O       O 
73       73 


O        O 

73       73 


.10     to      tn      in      10 


~> 


o      i> 
iniri 


g  § 


jo  jso 


88S88 
S8SSS3 


88 


88 


SS 


i  is 


. 

!! 


up 
* 


if 

2 

X& 


I 


a     a_;-w     o 

1  I33  * 


o 

* 


pasBqo 
-anj  s  MOO 


w      K      M 

5       «       S 


oo 

-e-o 


oo 
»d    »d 


ooo 


SMOfl  10  '  OKI 


8    8 


88 


:-•        S§ 


111  III ?  VII! ! !! 


.-.a 


f.  ^1  5   ..g"  |t  7.f*o... 


g  . 


re 
m 


2  a   3   2 

M  o     2     2 
ft&Jff 

—        B*    SH 


j      BSSISi 

-*-»  ed  H2  -M  "*"^  _- 

®  SHOO  2  = 


«s  tc  OD  « -w  '43  a 
PL,  OH 


S  1§ 

g  S  S3 

XJ  to^ 

si  Si 

I  fil 

50  rtd 

•  A  •  -  c3 

sS  §S 


g| 


1  S3 

^1 

2  S^ 
2   2S 

03         CO   > 

£  fi* 


Pas 
sw 


H    S  : 

fe    a  : 


5  £«  5 


fa^^ 


• 


104  THE   BUSINESS   OF  DAIRYING 

A  study  of  the  above  table  shows  that  the  annual 
cost  of  feeding  a  cow  ranged,  with  the  95  dairymen 
reporting,  from  $16  to  $75,  the  average  being  $40.36. 
The  average  of  the  milk  yield  reported  by  99  dairy- 
men was  7,093.1  pounds,  and  the  average  butter 
yield  reported  by  78  dairymen  was  341.2  pounds. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  most  of  these  dairy- 
men practiced  up-to-date  methods,  were  careful 
feeders  as  well  as  breeders,  and  kept  careful  records 
of  their  work.  These  records  present  a  great  con- 
trast to  those  reported  under  creamery  patron  in- 
vestigations. 


CHAPTER  V 
RECORDS  OF  GRADE  COWS 

THE  great  mass  of  dairymen  deal  with  the  grade 
cow  and  will  doubtless  continue  to  do  so  for  many 
years  to  come.  The  records  of  these  animals  are 
therefore  more  important  to  the  average  diary 
farmer.  The  following  detailed  descriptions  and 
records  of  profitable  dairy  herds  will  serve  to  show 
the  possibilities  in  production  where  herds  are  well 
managed  and  good  business  methods  followed: 


88 


888 


sS   £§§•*  -Si   *•?§& 

T3rt      JgeigS       *.„     pg*J 


2 


.     .          . 

l 


rs        d  .5 


.. 
.ga 


. 

-C        P  ^  "  P  «  ir  Sf 


5     ,8 


Sa 


- 


pasuip 


posrea  SAYOO 


ssii  ! 

CS-CJM 


i 


ri  :s 

i-! 


31H 


£ 

.00      eo  I 

k  eo 


s  § 


S       S 

co          eo 


^  co      t^ 


88S 


8          88 


. 


IJ 


- 


il 


-" 


a     0,3^0, 


. 

>  9  s 


ll 


. 

5  «     •  S  IT  di  SMM  0 

IIIIIII! 


.. 

l 

f*  6C  «J  0  §  B!  0  6C          .?  *  cj      J-5 

W.     M          IN  fU          (M          *M 


^  a    .-d    «' 


poswp 
-an<i  SAVOQ 


01  OJ 

fa      H 


o  a 

c3— 

<D 


oo 

'da>'O 

3 

CJ 


— 

>>  >>.2 


vN 


loco 


BAVOO  ;o  - 


is 


g 


to 

8 

(M                  CO            O 

0 

e 

10 

« 

•* 

in                -*           -* 

10 

to 

to 

8 

8 

8          S       8 

CO                      CO                CO 

g 

s 

i 

i 

1 

i       1     i 

£ 

§ 

i 

10 

s 

10    ° 

to 

3 

8 
8 

8 

8          88 

8 
g 

8 

i!  IPI  1; 


•'ft       60  02  o"  ^        J.  i 

II  Jl8i  Is 

&Sgl§ao    gS 

ilL-IL  ? 

XiS"       ^    - 


d     § 


-N    fl 


55  2 


s 


i      ! 


£    'g 


II    1 

s?s^ 


w  ; 
rns 


Grade 
seys;  few 
Shorthor 
Guernseys 
half-bl 


uer 
ra 


«i        t»  a  >> 

SB  K  <U 
-5^; 


l 

SI 


CO              CO 

10                    <D 

in 

p 

»n                   co 

8     § 

§         S 

^ 

i 

i        s 

108 


THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


Low  records  of  grade  cows. — As  a  contrast  to  the 
preceding  table,  the  following  records  of  herds  of 
100  creamery  patrons  are  presented  to  show  the  low 
profits  realized  by  the  average  farmer  in  many  parts 
of  the  country. 

Records  of  Herds  Owned  by  100  Patrons  of  a  Creamery 

[Reported  in  Hoard's  Dairyman] 


(Patron's  1 
Number  | 

Number  of  I 
Cows 

Breed  of  Cows 

Cost  of 
Feed 
per  Cow 

Returns 
from 
Creamery 
per  Cow 

"o      * 

2*8 

£S  *- 

PS& 

Returns  for 
each  100 
Pounds  of 
Milk 

Returns  for 
each  $1 
Worth  of 
Food  Fed 

1 

8 

Natives  mostly           

$42  70 

$49  44 

Lbs. 
4  628 

$1  07 

$1  16 

9 

10 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds  

33  80 

48  36 

4.655 

1  04 

1  43 

4 

10 

do   . 

35  50 

27  43 

2  756 

99 

77 

4 

7 

do   

36  28 

31  00 

3,198 

97 

85 

5 

6 

17 

7 

Natives  and  grade  Holsteins  — 
Natives  mostly   

34  12 
31  75 

37  40 
29  65 

3,630 
3,224 

1  03 

92 

1  09 
93 

7 

IS 

Grade  Durhams 

38  60 

23  8fi 

2  266 

1  02 

62 

8 

8 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds  

42  00 

70  33 

6,393 

1  10 

1  67 

q 

Ifi 

do 

35  40 

37  29 

3  856 

96 

1  05 

in 

8 

do   

31  25 

22  97 

2,428 

95 

73 

11 

IS 

Natives 

39  25 

38  86 

3  754 

1  03 

99 

i^ 

8 

Mixed  breeds   

38  88 

46  97 

4  463 

1  07 

1  21 

is 

q 

Natives  and  grade  Jerseys 

51  10 

66  80 

5  572 

1  20 

1  30 

14 

1? 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds  

36  50 

39  35 

3916 

1  00 

1  08 

15 

7 

Grade  Jerseys 

40  00 

43  13 

4  394 

98 

1  07 

16 

8 

Holsteins  and  grades  

39  00 

46  55 

4,974 

91 

1  19 

17 

18 

9 
10 

Grade  Jerseys  and  Holsteins  
Natives  and  mixed  breeds  

42  00 
38  58 

49  75 
39  45 

5.197 
4  303 

96 
92 

1  18 
1  02 

IP 

90 

Natives 

39  75 

42  18 

4  350 

97 

1  06 

90 

90 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds  

42  25 

35  57 

3605 

99 

81 

21 
22 
9S 

25 

7 
IS 

Natives  and  grade  Holsteins.... 
Grade  Jerseys  and  natives  
Natives    . 

36  90 
37  10 
33  23 

42  30 
28  91 
37  21 

4,325 
3,067 
3  675 

98 
94 
1  01 

1  15 
78 
1  12 

24 
M 

30 
16 

Grades  Holsteins  and  Jerseys.. 
Natives   mostly 

43  50 
31  25 

53  32 
39  64 

5,298 
4  211 

1  06 
94 

1  23 
1  26 

96 

6 

Natives    

37  80 

48  15 

4  500 

1  07 

1  27 

27 

24 

Mixed  breeds   

42  38 

45  38 

4508 

1  01 

1  07 

?8 

10 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds 

35  45 

52  66 

5  276 

1  00 

1  48 

29 

11 

Grade  Holsteins  

35  10 

50  07 

5,266 

95 

1  43 

30 
31 
33 

10 
17 
15 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds  
Natives  and  grade  Holsteins  
Natives    

38  50 
37  00 
30  00 

46  63 
36  04 
13  88 

4,745 
3.004 
1  566 

98 
1  04 
92 

1  21 
83 
46 

33 

IS 

do   .... 

41  50 

31  73 

3  155 

1  00 

76 

34 

14 

Natives  and  grade  Holsteins  and 
Jerseys 

31  43 

32  94 

3  542 

93 

1  05 

35 

36 
37 

6 
15 

90 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds  
Natives  and  grade  Holsteins  
Natives    

44  65 
38  20 
37  90 

35  66 
45  60 
18  60 

3.874 
4,466 
2  021 

92 
1  06 

92 

80 
1  19 

49 

(Continued  on  page  109) 


RECORDS  OF  GRADE  COWS 


Records  of  Herds  Owned  by  100  Patrons  of  a  Creamery 

(Continued  from  page  108) 


Patron's 
Number 

Number  of 
Cows 

Breed  of  Cows 

Cost  of 
Feed 
per  Cow 

l"l 

Yield  of 
Milk 
per  Cow 

Returns  for 
each  100 
Pounds  of 
Milk 

Returns  for 
each  $1 
Worth  of 
Food  Fed 

38 

19 

Grade  Jerseys     

34  37 

31  10 

Lbs. 

3,075 

1  01 

90 

39 

28 

Holsteins  and  Jerseys          

42  00 

54  93 

4,957 

1  11 

1  31 

40 

SO 

Natives    

46  20 

57  32 

5,355 

1  07 

1  24 

41 

14 

Natives  and  grade  Jerseys  and 
Holsteins 

38  50 

40  23 

3,948 

1  02 

1  05 

42 

6 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds  

41  50 

64  50 

6,303 

1  02 

1  56 

43 

44 

27 
•> 

Jersey  and  Holstein  grades  
Natives    

40  48 
40  20 

38  90 
45  13 

3,885 
4,438 

1  00 
1  02 

96 
1  12 

45 

50 

Mixed  breeds              

36  10 

32  54 

3,187 

1  02 

90 

46 

94 

do   

36  50 

46  56 

4.680 

1  00 

1  28 

47 
48 

20 

27 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds  
Natives  and  grade  Jerseys  and 

39  50 
36  55 

30  03 
54  47 

3,165 
5181 

95 
1  05 

76 
1  49 

49 

13 

Holstein  grades          

39  00 

29  93 

3,063 

98 

76 

50 

10 

Natives 

36  40 

39  71 

4168 

95 

1  08 

51 

SO 

Mixed  breeds                

38  50 

53  63 

5,520 

97 

1  39 

52 

g 

Natives 

42  20 

48  13 

4813 

97 

1  14 

53 

15 

do  

31  60 

29  38 

3,228 

91 

93 

54 

15 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds  

42  18 

45  40 

4,729 

96 

1  08 

55 

5 

Natives    

32  00 

25  53 

2,806 

91 

80 

56 

57 

21 
12 

Natives  and  grade  Holsteins  — 
Mixed  breeds 

39  00 
40  00 

35  00 

41  57 

3,511 
4  014 

1  00 
1  03 

90 
1  03 

58 
59 

7 
7 

Holstein  and  Jersey  grades  
Natives 

35  00 
37  00 

40  85 
47  84 

4,800 
4  771 

95 
1  00 

1  17 
1  29 

00 

q 

Mixed  breeds  

37  35 

37  11 

3,893 

99 

99 

61 

15 

do   .                                   

38  35 

20  72 

2  157 

96 

54 

62 

S9 

Natives   and  grades  

43  00 

35  91 

4,029 

89 

84 

53 

10 

Grade  Jerseys   

40  60 

23  50 

2,423 

97 

58 

>4 

g 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds 

40  20 

26  50 

2  812 

94 

66 

65 

19 

Mixed  breeds   

39  50 

39  83 

3.966 

1  00 

1  01 

66 

•^o 

Natives 

32  00 

28  64 

3198 

91 

89 

67 

g] 

Mixed  breeds 

40  00 

30  06 

3  209 

93 

77 

68 
6!) 

10 
10 

Natives  and  Jersey  grades  
Mixed  breeds 

32  70 
37  00 

35  25 
38  52 

3,750 
4  042 

94 
95 

1  08 
1  04 

70 

30 

do   

37  00 

24  81 

2,409 

03 

67 

71 

15 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds.     ... 

38  72 

41  68 

4  041 

03 

1  08 

72 

20 

do 

40  60 

46  44 

4  551 

02 

1  14 

73 

91 

Natives  and  grade  Jerseys  

37  00 

25  16 

2  780 

91 

68 

74 

IS 

Natives 

41  00 

41  18 

3  877 

09 

1  00 

75 

15 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds  

37  60 

41  68 

4,041 

03 

1  11 

76 

96 

Natives  mostly 

40  50 

33  60 

3  140 

07 

80 

77 

13 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds  

40  00 

38  00 

3.518 

08 

95 

78 

14 

Natives    

35  00 

29  22 

2  865 

02 

83 

7!) 

35 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds 

40  00 

38  06 

3  696 

03 

95 

80 

14 

do 

39  60 

39  57 

3  967 

oo 

1  00 

81 

90 

do   

38  60 

34  31 

3  534 

97 

89 

82 

01 

do 

43  25 

47  65 

4  814 

99 

1  10 

83 

13 

High-grade  Jerseys    

33  00 

82  47 

3  184 

1  02 

98 

84 

u 

Natives  mostly    . 

38  75 

37  45 

3  941 

95 

96 

85 

10 

Natives  and  grade  Holsteins  

39  00 

40  81 

4,021 

1  02 

1  05 

(Concluded  on  page  110) 


1 10 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


Records  of  Herds  Owned  by  100  Patrons  of  a  Creamery 

(Continued  from  page  109) 


Patron's  1 
Number 

Number  of 
Cows 

Breed  of  Cows 

Cost  of 
Feed 
per  Cow 

Returns 
from 
Creamery 
per  Cow 

°*l 

I1! 

Returns  for 
each  100 
Pounds  of 
Milk 

Returns  for 
each  $1 
Worth  of 
Food  Fed 

86 

15 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds 

38  00 

36  10 

Lbs. 
3954 

91 

95 

87 

1? 

Natives 

36  33 

38  60 

3,748 

1  03 

1  03 

88 

6 

do   

35  00 

21  15 

2,165 

97 

60 

89 
90 

6 
18 

Natives  and  grade  Holsteins  — 
Natives  and  grade  Holsteins  and 
Jerseys 

35  66 
41  50 

35  42 
50  35 

3,472 
4  795 

1  02 
1  05 

99 
1  21 

91 
92 

19 
17 

Grade  Jerseys  and  mixed  breeds 
Grade  Holsteins 

39  40 
38  65 

41  18 
31  08 

4,078 
3  048 

1  01 

1  02 

1  04 
80 

93 

18 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds  

38  55 

29  17 

3078 

99 

86 

94 

8 

Mixed  breeds   

36  52 

41  11 

4,237 

97 

1  12 

95 

10 

Natives  and  mixed  breeds    ..  .. 

41  30 

48  60 

4,760 

1  02 

1  17 

96 
97 

7 

7 

Natives  and  grade  Ayrshires  
Natives    

38  70 
34  00 

40  97 
35  25 

4,052 
3  672 

1  01 
96 

1  06 
1  04 

98 

">0 

do 

37  00 

37  12 

3  783 

98 

1  00 

99 

40 

do   .  .      .            

33  45 

36  69 

3  628 

1  01 

1  10 

100 

20 

Natives  and  grade  Holsteins  

40  70 

51  10 

4,782 

1  05 

1  20 

It  is  shown  in  the  preceding  table  that  the  cost  of 
keeping  a  cow  averaged  a  little  over  $35  per  head 
and  that  the  patrons  received  an  average  profit  of 
65  cents  per  cow  a  year.  In  other  words,  for  every 
dollar  expended,  the  average  dairymen  at  this  par- 
ticular creamery  received  only  $1.01,  and  42  were 
paying  more  for  feed  than  they  received  for  their 
milk.  Surely  there  is  need  of  better  business 
methods  than  those  practiced  by  the  average  dairy- 
man. 

Causes  of  low  yields. — With  the  majority  of 
dairymen  who  fail  to  make  a  profit,  the  causes  of  low 
yields  are  poor  rations  and  using  poor  cows  to  turn 
these  rations  into  milk.  Too  many  fail  to  appreciate 
the  value  of  the  silo,  the  value  of  forage  crops  to 
supplement  the  scanty  pastures,  particularly  the  al- 
falfa crop,  and  concentrated  feeding  stuffs  to  balance 


IMPROVING   THE   DAIRY    HERD  III 

rations,  as  factors  in  increasing  the  milk  yield  and 
reducing  the  cost  of  production.  There  were  numer- 
ous examples  in  this  same  locality  to  show  that 
5,000  pounds  of  milk  per  cow  per  year  were  within 
the  reach  of  every  painstaking  dairyman.  Many  are 
practicing  the  primitive  methods  of  for,ty  or  fifty 
years  ago  and  fail  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  de- 
mands of  a  progressive  age.  Further,  they  do  not 
avail  themselves  of  the  education  in  dairying  and 
agriculture  so  cheaply  offered  in  the  dairy  and  agri- 
cultural papers,  farmers'  institutes,  bulletins  from 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  reading  courses,  and 
other  sources. 


CHAPTER  VI 

BUSINESS  METHODS  IN  IMPROVING  THE 
DAIRY  HERD  BY  MEANS  OF  A  PURE- 
BRED SIRE 

WHILE  raising  the  heifer  calves  from  cows  show- 
ing good  dairy  performance  is  of  great  importance 
in  improving  the  dairy  herd,  as  shown  in  a  previous 
chapter,  the  fact  should  not  be  overlooked  that  the 
calf  inherits  the  qualities  of  both  parents  and,  as 
will  be  shown  in  what  follows,  the  sire  is  of  even 
more  importance  than  the  dam.  One  does  not  need 
to  go  very  far  among  dairy  farmers  to  find  herds 
where  little  or  no  attention  is  given  to  the  selection 
of  the  sire.  A  scrub  bull  of  any  breeding  is  con- 
sidered good  enough  to  be  the  parent  of  the  calves 


112  THE   BUSINESS   OF  DAIRYING 

which  are  to  become  the  future  herd.  Some  one 
says  the  purebred  sire  costs  more.  Certainly. 
Quality  has  to  be  paid  for,  wherever  we  find  it.  But 
isn't  it  worth  the  price?  We  cannot  expect  to  get 
something  for  nothing,  even  in  breeding.  But  let 
us  follow  up  this  matter  and  see  what  a  good  sire 
is  really  worth  to  a  dairyman.  With  the  first 
progeny  the  male  has  furnished  half  the  qualities 
provided  the  parents  are  equally  prepotent.  But  the 
cow  has  but  one  calf  a  year,  while  the  bull  may  have 
sired  all  the  calves  in  the  herd,  if  it  is  of  ordinary 
size,  and  if  he  is  a  strong  individual,  of  good  type, 
the  chances  are  that  he  will  be  more  prepotent  than 
the  cows,  particularly  if  it  is  a  grade  herd.  His 
influence,  then,  will  be  as  much  and  possibly  more 
than  all  the  cows  in  the  herd  taken  together.  With 
each  generation  of  calves  the  improvement  in- 
creases, and  the  good  qualities  become  more  firmly 
fixed,  while  the  defects  from  the  dam  decrease,  and 
in  time  the  bull  may  become  practically  the  whole 
herd.  If  he  has  been  well  bred  and  his  influence  has 
been  good  it  is  possible  for  the  sire  to  be  the  means 
of  more  than  doubling  the  production  and  hence  the 
profits  of  the  herd.  Looking  at  this  from  a  business 
standpoint,  then,  the  evidence  is  clear  that  the  most 
careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the  selection  of 
the  sire.  His  ancestry  is  of  even  more  importance 
than  that  of  the  cow,  and  care  should  be  taken  that 
he  comes  from  a  good  milking  strain ;  he  should  be 
purebred  in  order  that  his  characteristics  may  be 
well  fixed,  and  consequently  have  more  influence 
than  a  grade  dam.  He  should  show  vigor  and  good 


IMPROVING    THE    DAIRY    HERD  113 

individual  type.  Such  a  sire  need  not  cost  more 
than  one-tenth  of  the  grade  herd  which  he  heads, 
yet  he  may  have  the  most  influence  in  the  improve- 
ment of  the  herd. 

Service  records. — One  of  the  essential  things  on  a 
dairy  farm  is  to  keep  a  careful  record  of  the  date  of 
service  of  all  cows,  the  name  of  the  bull  employed, 
date  of  calving,  sex  of  calf,  and  whether  raised  or 
sold.  The  accompanying  form  will  serve  as  a  sug- 
gestion for  keeping  such  records.  It  was  used  for 
a  number  of  years  by  the  author,  and  found  practi- 
cable. 

Raising  the  cows  from  best  calves. — Many  dairy- 
men are  not  raising  their  heifer  calves.  They 
are  sold  for  veal,  whether  good  or  bad.  Provision 
should  be  made  for  perpetuating  the  dairy  herd, 
particularly  the  best  cows  in  it,  otherwise  the  best 
blood  is  soon  gone  and  splendid  opportunities  for 
building  up  the  herd  thrown  away.  This  is  a  serious 
practice  and  should  be  carefully  considered  by  every 
dairyman.  He  can  well  take  a  lesson  here  from  the 
careful  breeder  who  makes  every  effort  to  per- 
petuate the  blood  of  his  best  animals,  and  frequently 
resorts  to  the  practice  of  inbreeding  to  intensify 
good  qualities.  The  custom  of  buying  all  the  cows  has 
a  tendency  to  lower  rather  than  raise  the  standard 
of  the  herd,  for  the  reason  that  few  of  the  best  cows 
are  for  sale,  and  a  dealer  can  supply  his  purchasers 
with  only  a  limited  number  of  good  cows. 

The  dairyman  who  raises  his  own  cows  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  cow-dealer  and  is  more  certain  of 
good  stock  in  the  end.  Heifers  raised  from  the  best 


THE   BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


fiS 


•2«  ..  d 
&gs* 

T 


IMPROVING    THE    DAIRY    HERD  115 

cows  are  frequently  better  milk  producers  with  their 
first  calves  than  the  cows  ordinarily  purchased. 

Not  expensive  to  raise  cows. — It  is  a  mistaken 
idea  that  it  costs  too  much  to  raise  cows.  The  Illi- 
nois Experiment  Station  carefully  investigated  this 
subject  by  raising  48  calves.  Records  were  kept  of 
12  at  a  time  during  four  different  periods.  It  was 
found  that  they  could  be  successfully  raised  on  150 
pounds  of  whole  milk  costing  $1.50,  and  400  pounds 
of  skim  milk  costing  $1.20.  This  milk  was  fed  at 
the  rate  of  10  pounds  per  day  until  the  calves  were 
50  days  old,  when  it  was  gradually  lessened  to  one 
pound  per  day  for  ten  days,  when  no  more  was  fed 
Only  the  ordinary  grains  which  the  farmer  produces 
and  a  good  quality  of  legume  hay  were  fed,  showing 
that  the  dairyman  can  raise  a  calf  in  this  way  with 
little  trouble. 

Successful  dairymen  state  that  they  raise  heifer 
calves  at  a  cost  of  $18  to  $20  up  to  the  time  they  are 
two  years  old,  and  frequently  sell  them  for  $50  at 
this  age.  Even  if  it  cost  twice  the  above  amount 
to  raise  them  there  is  a  good  margin  of  profit.  This 
is  a  good  business  proposition  and  shows  that  it  is 
better  to  raise  cows  than  to  buy  them. 

That  the  dairyman  should  raise  his  own  cows  is 
one  of  the  fundamental  elements  of  profitable  dairy- 
ing, and  the  lack  of  application  of  this  principle  is 
responsible  for  a  large  per  cent,  of  the  poor  herds  in 
this  country.  That  the  cow's  capacity  for  large 
milk  production  is  likely  to  be  transmitted  to  her 
daughter  is  well  illustrated  in  the  following 
examples : 


THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


o 

IS 

i 

**I 

5 

ITS 

•sqi 

i 

1 

ec 
O 

3Z 

s   s 

£ 

>» 

•q 

M 

M 

*«* 

8    g 

O 

>> 

9 
p 

Q 

•sqi 

li 

s 

1 

o 

•eqi 

O*         OJ         CO 

2 
§, 

53 

*«* 

s  s  e 

•n!      in      •* 

s 

1 

•sqq 

o      •-<      oo 
in      r-<      g 

OJ^        <M         CO^ 

to      in      t> 

n  every 

h^ 

•sqi 

CD        O        CO        CO        ^ 

F»      e      M     «E      C9 

I 

11 

g 

2>    ltf|T 

S    g    ??    S    5 

£ 

g 

1 

o 

00        <D        <M        •*        «0 

a 

•sqi 

op      m      50      eo      t- 

&     S    5     53     9 

«0         t-T        00*        05         05 

1 

n 

i-i-^otMT-ieofMO 

S«5(M(MOCOCO<M 

a> 

mc<8t—  tot^-O^o^ 

rHc--co3'not-(M 

i 

^ 

iHrHCsSr-ICi'^Ci 

a» 

1 

Wi 

•^mco^^coeoeo 

g 

s 

oaToo'oo'.so't-^^'n 

1 

T3 

1 

M 

i  i  i  |';|  '!'!  ? 

rHff*eO-«^»«<Ct~00 

COW    TEST    ASSOCIATION  1 17 

COW      TEST      ASSOCIATIONS      PROMOTE 
BUSINESS     METHODS 

What  they  are. — Cow  test  associations  are  organ- 
izations of  dairy  farmers  having  for  their  object  the 
determination  of  the  economical  production  of  the 
individual  cows  in  the  herd.  The  plan  commonly 
followed  is  for  a  number  of  dairymen  having  a  total 
of  300  to  500  cows  to  organize,  elect  officers,  adopt 
constitution  and  by-laws,  and  perhaps  give  the  offi- 
cers power  to  employ  a  man  to  do  the  testing.  The 
tester  should  be  a  practical  and  tactful  man,  having 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  his  business.  He  need  not 
necessarily  be  a  college  graduate;  often  "Short 
Course"  students  make  splendid  men  for  this 
work. 

How  the  work  is  done. — The  tester  visits  each 
herd  once  a  month,  weighs  the  milk  of  each  cow  for 
a  period  of  twenty-four  hours,  takes  samples  of 
some  and  analyzes  them  for  per  cent,  of  butter  fat, 
weighs  the  feed  that  each  cow  is  receiving,  figures 
out  the  cost  of  the  ration,  puts  the  record  in  his 
book,  leaves  a  copy  for  the  dairyman,  gives  him  all 
the  helpful  suggestions  possible,  and  proceeds  to  the 
next  herd,  returning  again  in  about  a  month.  The 
entire  cost  to  the  dairyman  for  a  year  is  about  one 
dollar  per  cow  in  addition  to  boarding  the  tester 
during  his  stay  at  the  farm.  If  there  were  400  cows 
in  the  association,  this  would  amount  to  a  salary  oi 
$400  and  board  for  the  tester.  The  tester  says  to 
the  dairyman.,  "For  the  sum  of  one  dollar  per  cow, 
I  will  tell  you  just  how  much  profit  or  loss  every 


Il8  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

cow  in  your  herd  is  giving  you."  Every  dairyman 
ought  to  take  advantage  of  this  splendid  opportunity 
of  having  so  much  of  the  business  end  of  his  work 
figured  out  for  him  at  so  nominal  a  cost.  State 
experiment  stations,  State  dairy  associations,  and 
State  dairy  and  food  departments  often  give  valuable 
assistance  in  organizing  cow  test  associations. 

Results. — Cow  test  associations  have  had  a  tre- 
mendous influence  in  improving  dairy  herds,  par- 
ticularly in  Denmark,  where  the  first  association 
was  organized  in  1895.  In  1884  the  average  yield  of 
butter  fat  per  cow  annually  in  that  country  was 
about  100  pounds  and  in  1903  it  had  increased  to 
212  pounds,  or  over  100  per  cent.,  and  largely 
through  the  influence  of  425  cow  test  associations. 
Scores  of  associations  have  now  been  organized  in 
this  country,  the  first  one  being  in  Fremont, 
Michigan. 

To  give  one  illustration  of  the  difference  found  in 
the  profits  returned  by  individual  cows  through 
these  associations:  The  best  cow  in  one  herd  re- 
turned to  the  owner  $2.29  for  each  one  dollar's  worth 
of  feed  and  the  poorest  cow  returned  but  54  cents  for 
each  dollar's  worth  of  feed,  or,  considering  that  the 
skim  milk,  calf  and  manure  offset  the  labor,  this  cow 
was  losing  for  the  dairyman  46  cents  for  every  dol- 
lar's worth  of  feed  she  ate.  We  must  study  dairying 
as  a  business  proposition.  It  is  not  the  size  of  the 
cow,  or  the  breed,  or  the  color  or  the  pedigree,  or 
the  yield  that  we  want  to  know,  it  is  the  economical 
production.  How  much  profit  is  there  after  the  bills 
are  paid? 


NEWAYGO  COUNTY  DAIRY  TESTING  ASSOCIATION      IIQ 

Cow  test  associations  set  the  dairyman  to  think- 
ing. If  he  is  not  getting  as  much  profit  as  his  neigh- 
bor he  asks  why?  These  associations  set  the  farmer 
to  reading;  as  a  result,  he  keeps  better  cows,  feeds 
better  feeds,  builds  a  silo,  buys  a  purebred  bull, 
keeps  his  stable  clean,  puts  in  light  and  ventilation, 
and  takes  more  pride  in  his  work  generally.  If  a 
dairyman  wants  better  prices  for  his  products  and 
a  better  profit,  he  must  go  after  what  he  wants,  and 
the  Cow  Test  Association  will  help  him  to  get  it. 
He  is  certain  of  cheaper  production  if  he  disposes 
of  the  poor  animals  for  better  ones.  It  is  simply  a 
question  of  applying  business  methods. 


By-Laws   of  the   Newaygo   County   Dairy  Testing 
Association 

Adopted  at  first  meeting,  October  31,  1905. 

ARTICLE  I.    ANNUAL  AND  SPECIAL  MEETINGS 

The  annual  meeting  of  the  members  of  this  cor- 
poration shall  be  held  at  a  place  to  be  designated 
by  the  board  of  directors  in  the  village  of  Fremont, 
Michigan,  on  the  first  Monday  of  November  of  each 
year  at  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  for  the  purpose 
of  electing  a  board  of  directors  and  for  the  transac- 
tion of  such  other  business  as  may  lawfully  come 
before  said  meeting. 

Special  meetings  may  be  called  by  the  board  of 
directors  and  notice  thereof  shall  be  given  by  the 
secretary  by  mailing  to  each  member  a  written  or 


I2O  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

printed  notice  thereof  at  least  five  days  prior  to  such 
meeting.  Such  notice  shall  state  the  object  of  the 
meeting,  and  no  other  business  shall  be  transacted 
thereat. 

ARTICLE  II.    BOARD  OF  DIRECTORS 

SECTION  i.  The  board  of  directors  shall  consist 
of  nine  members.  They  shall  be  elected  at  each  an- 
nual meeting,  the  first  election  to  be  held  on  the 
first  Monday  of  November,  A.D.  1906. 

SEC.  2.  The  board  of  directors  shall  have  the 
management  and  control  of  the  business  of  the  cor- 
poration, and  shall  employ  such  agents  and  servants 
as  they  may  deem  advisable,  and  fix  the  rates  of  com- 
pensation of  all  officers,  agents  and  employes. 

SEC.  3.  Whenever  any  vacancies  shall  occur  in 
the  board  of  directors  by  death,  resignation  or  other- 
wise, the  same  may  be  filled  without  undue  delay 
by  the  majority  vote  of  the  remaining  members  of 
the  board.  The  person  so  chosen  shall  hold  office 
until  the  next  annual  meeting  or  until  his  successor 
is  elected  and  qualified. 

SEC.  4.  The  board  of  directors  shall  meet  on  the 
first  Monday  of  every  month,  at  such  times  and  in 
such  places  as  they  may  by  resolution  determine. 

SEC.  5.  A  majority  of  the  directors  shall  consti- 
tute a  quorum  at  all  meetings  of  the  board. 

ARTICLE   III.     OFFICERS 

SECTION  i.  The  officers  of  the  corporation  shall 
consist  of  President,  Vice-President,  Secretary  and 
Treasurer.  The  office  of  Secretary  and  Treasurer 


NEWAYGO  COUNTY  DAIRY  TESTING  ASSOCIATION      121 

may  be  held  by  the  same  person.  The  officers  shall 
be  elected  by  the  board  of  directors  by  a  majority 
vote  of  the  whole  number  of  directors.  The  first 
election  shall  be  held  immediately  after  the  organ- 
ization of  the  board.  Subsequent  elections  shall  be 
held  annually  on  the  day  of  the  regular  meeting  of 
the  board  next  ensuing  the  annual  election,  the  day 
to  be  fixed  by  resolution  of  the  board  of  directors. 
SEC.  2.  In  case  of  death,  resignation  or  removal  of 
any  officer,  the  board  shall  elect  his  successor,  who 
shall  hold  office  for  the  unexpired  term. 

ARTICLE  IV.    MEMBERSHIP 

Any  person  acceptable  to  the  board  of  directors 
may  become  a  member  upon  paying  a  membership 
fee  of  25  cents. 

ARTICLE  V.    DUES 

Each  member  shall  pay  a  fee  of  25  cents  annually 
on  or  before  the  first  Monday  of  November.  The 
first  annual  dues  to  be  payable  on  or  before  the  first 
Monday  of  November,  1906.  No  member  shall  be 
allowed  to  participate  in  the  election  of  the  board  of 
directors  who  shall  not  have  paid  his  annual  dues 
in  advance. 

ARTICLE  VI.    AMENDMENTS 

These  by-laws  may  be  amended,  added  to  or  al- 
tered by  a  majority  vote  of  all  members  present  at 
annual  meeting  cr  at  a  special  meeting  called  for  that 
purpose. 


122  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

Articles   of   Association   of   the    Newaygo    County 
Dairy  Testing  Association 

We,  the  undersigned,  desiring  to  become  incor- 
porated under  the  provisions  of  Act  No.  171  of  the 
Public  Acts  of  1903,  entitled  "An  act  for  the  incor- 
poration of  associations  not  for  pecuniary  profit" 
and  the  acts  amendatory  thereof  and  supplementary 
thereto,  do  hereby  make,  execute  and  adopt  the  fol- 
lowing articles  of  association,  to  wit : 

ARTICLE  I 

The  name  by  which  said  association  shall  be 
known  in  law  is  Newaygo  County  Dairy  Testing 
Association. 

ARTICLE  II 

The  purpose  for  which  it  is  formed  is  generally  to 
promote  the  dairying  interests  of  its  members  and 
particularly  to  provide  means  and  methods  for  test- 
ing the  milk  of  cows  of  the  members  periodically. 

ARTICLE  III 

Its  principal  office  and  place  of  business  shall  be 
at  Fremont,  Michigan. 

ARTICLE  IV 

The  number  of  its  directors  shall  be  nine. 

ARTICLE  V 

The  names  of  the  directors  selected  for  the  first 
year  of  its  existence  are  as  follows :  John  Dobben, 
Dirk  Kolk,  Gerhard  Stroven,  Chris  Wils,  George 


NEWAYGO   COUNTY  DAIRY   TESTING   ASSOCIATION    123 

Klooster,  John  Beem,  Henry  Wilcox,  Wilks  Stuart 
and  Henry  Rozema. 

ARTICLE  VI 

Any  person  may  become  a  member  of  this  associa- 
tion and  be  entitled  to  all  its  benefits  and  privileges 
upon  being  accepted  by  its  board  of  directors  and 
upon  complying  with  the  requirements  of  its  by- 
laws. 


•i 


PART  IV— FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


CHAPTER  I 
BUSINESS  METHODS  IN  FEEDING 

THE  business  man  aims  to  secure  the  largest 
returns  possible  for  every  dollar  expended.  There  is 
no  business  that  requires  more  earful  study  and 
forethought  to  accomplish  this  than  that  which  rests 
upon  the  dairyman  when  he  faces  the  problem  of 
providing  a  palatable  and  well-balanced  ration  for  a 
dairy  herd.  The  dairyman  must  not  only  be  a  good 
producer  and  intelligent  buyer,  but  it  is  fully  as 
important  that  he  be  a  careful  feeder.  Give  him 
the  best  cows  obtainable  and  it  is  possible  for  him 
to  feed  them  so  sparingly  or  so  wastefully  that  they 
will  not  return  a  dollar's  worth  of  profit.  The  ques- 
tion of  careful  feeding  becomes  more  important  as 
the  variety  of  crops  multiply  and  new  feeds  are 
added  to  those  already  in  the  market. 

Proper  feeding  must  begin  when  the  animal  is 
young.  If  we  feed  the  growing  heifer  nitrogenous 
foods  to  develop  muscle  and  bone  and  an  abundance 
of  coarse  fodder  to  develop  a  capacity  for  digesting 
and  assimilating  a  large  amount  of  food,  we  may 
expect  these  characteristics  to  show  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  in  the  full-grown  cow.  On  the  other 


126  THE   BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

hand  if  the  cow  is  fed  in  calfhood  largely  carbona- 
ceous and  fat-forming  foods,  whatever  breed  we  may 
have  at  the  start,  we  must  expect,  as  a  result  of 
this  method  of  feeding,  an  animal  having  a  tendency 
to  lay  on  flesh  readily  and  with  dairy  qualities 
poorly  developed.  After  a  cow  has  begun  to  pro- 
duce milk,  still  more  attention  should  be  given  to 
supplying  her  with  a  balanced  ration  if  large  yields 
are  to  be  obtained. 

The  proper  feeding  of  a  dairy  cow  is  a  science 
which  may  be  defined  as  supplying  food  in  the  right 
proportion  to  meet  her  various  requirements  with- 
out a  waste  of  food  nutrients.  The  chemist  and  the 
animal  physiologist  have  carefully  worked  out  the 
principles  of  feeding.  It  is  left  for  the  dairyman  then 
to  know  his  arithmetic  and  to  spend  a  little  time  in 
learning  the  composition,  digestibility  and  charac- 
teristics of  the  different  food  stuffs  and  in  studying 
the  needs  of  his  individual  animals.  Careful  study 
has  been  made  of  these  with  different  animals  under 
different  conditions  and  the  requirements  of  animals 
for  the  various  food  nutrients  when  at  rest,  at  work, 
giving  milk,  producing  wool,  pork,  beef,  mutton,  etc. 
The  applications  of  the  various  feeding  stuffs  in 
practice,  their  cost  and  special  adaptations  must,  of 
course,  be  considered. 

Composition  of  the  animal  body. — In  order  that 
we  may  have  an  intelligent  idea  of  the  feeding  prob- 
lems and  work  out  practical  methods,  we  will  discuss 
briefly  the  various  substances  found  in  the  animal 
body. 

Water. — The  principal  constituent,  in  respect  to 


BUSINESS    METHODS   IN    FEEDING  127 

quantity,  and  comprises  from  40  to  80  per  cent,  of 
the  gross  weight.  .While  indispensable,  it  has  but 
little  economic  importance  here. 

Ash  occurs  principally  in  the  bones  and  consti- 
tutes from  2  to  5  per  cent,  of  the  live  weight.  The 
term  is  applied  to  the  residue  left  after  complete 
burning. 

Protein. — This  is  the  constituent  which  forms 
flesh  and  includes  all  the  nutrients  which  contain 
nitrogen ;  albumenoids  being  the  most  important. 
Familiar  forms  of  this  nutrient  are  lean  meat,  white 
of  the  egg,  and  the  casein  of  milk  (curd).  The 
flesh,  skin,  bones  (in  part),  vital  organs,  brain, 
nerves,  in  fact  the  bodily  mechanism,  are  made  up  of 
protein  diluted,  so  to  speak,  with  water,  supported 
by  the  ash  of  the  skeleton  and  rounded  out  with 
fat.  Protein  is  therefore  of  the  utmost  importance. 

Fat  comprises  from  6  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  live 
weight  in  different  classes  of  animals  and  is  usually 
well  distributed  in  the  body.  It  consists  of  carbon, 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  but  contains  no  nitrogen. 
While  not  so  vital  to  the  animal  life  as  the  other 
three  constituents,  it  has  much  economic  interest. 

These  various  substances  are  formed  from  animal, 
vegetable,  and  mineral  matter  known  as  food  and 
are  converted  by  the  animal  eating  them  into  flesh, 
fat,  bone,  milk,  wool,  and  work  (energy).  It  is  of 
interest,  therefore,  to  consider  next  the  composition 
of  vegetable  matter,  or  the  food  of  animals. 

Composition  of  food  materials. — There  is  a  simi- 
larity between  the  constituents  of  animals  and 
plants.  The  four  groups  of  substances  cited  under 


128  THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

the  composition  of  animals — namely,  water,  ash, 
protein  and  fat — are  also  found  in  the  food  they  con- 
sume, and  in  addition  the  food  of  herbivorous  ani- 
mals contains  a  class  called  carbohydrates,  which  in- 
cludes cellulose,  woody  tissue,  starch,  sugar,  gums, 
etc.  While  the  individual  substances  which  com- 
prise the  groups  when  they  are  of  vegetable  origin, 
are  quite  different  from  those  in  the  animal  body, 
these  differences  are  not  important  in  this  considera- 
tion. In  other  words,  water,  ash  and  true  fat  are 
quite  alike,  whether  found  in  plants  or  animals. 

Water  is  a  constituent  of  all  food  stuffs,  however 
dry  they  may  seem.  The  amount  may  be  only  8  to 
15  pounds  per  100  pounds  of  material,  as  in  hay, 
straw  or  grain,  but  in  green  corn  fodder  or  silage 
it  amounts  to  75  to  80  pounds,  and  in  some  roots 
to  90  pounds.  This  water,  although  it  may  add  to 
the  palatability  of  food,  is  of  no  more  benefit  to  the 
animal  than  the  water  in  the  food  it  drinks.  Because 
of  the  variation  in  the  proportion  of  water,  the  com- 
parisons of  foods  are  usually  made  on  the  dry  or 
water-free  basis,  which  shows  the  percentage  of 
food  ingredients  in  the  dry  matter. 

Ash. — As  already  stated,  this  is  what  is  left  after 
burning,  and  consists  of  lime,  magnesia,  potash, 
soda,  and  various  other  compounds,  and  is  used 
largely  in  making  bone.  Ordinary  combinations  of 
feeding  stuffs  contain  an  abundant  supply  of  mineral 
matter  for  the  requirements  of  the  animal,  so  it  is 
not  given  important  consideration,  only  as  far  as  it 
has  a  bearing  upon  the  mineral  elements  of  fertility 
in  the  manure. 


BUSINESS    METHODS   IN    FEEDING  I2Q 

Fat. — The  so-called  fats  of  fodders  and  feeds  is 
impure,  being  mixed  with  wax,  resins,  coloring 
matter,  etc.  These  materials  are  also  extracted  from 
a  fodder  by  boiling  ether,  hence  are  called  ether 
extract. 

Carbohydrates. — Substances  which  come  under 
this  class  are  usually  divided  into  two  groups:  (i) 
Nitrogen-free  extract,  a  term  applied  to  a  somewhat 
miscellaneous  group  of  nutrients,  none  of  which  con- 
tains nitrogen.  Its  principal  constituents  are  starch, 
sugar,  gums,  and  similar  substances.  (2)  Cellulose 
or  fiber,  the  essential  constituents  of  the  walls  of 
vegetable  cells.  Example,  cotton  fiber  and  wood 
pulp,  which  are  nearly  pure  cellulose.  Coarse  fod- 
ders like  hay  and  straw  contain  a  large  proportion 
of  fiber,  while  most  grains  contain  but  little. 

Protein. — Nitrogenous  compounds  is  the  name  of 
a  group  of  materials  containing  nitrogen.  All  other 
constituents  of  feeding  stuffs,  the  ash,  fat,  and  carbo- 
hydrates, are  non-nitrogenous  or  free  from  nitrogen. 
Protein  materials  are  often  designated  as  "flesh 
formers"  because  they  furnish  the  materials  for  lean 
flesh,  but  they  also  enter  largely  into  the  composi- 
tion of  blood,  skin  and  muscles,  the  casein  and 
albumen  of  milk,  etc.  No  substance  free  from  nitro- 
gen can  take  the  place  of  protein.  It  is  absolutely 
necessary  then  to  have  it  in  the  ration  if  the  animal 
is  to  grow  or  maintain  existence.  Protein  is  held  by 
some  to  be  a  stimulant  to  milk  production. 

i.  Chemical  analyses  of  feeding  stuffs. — For  the 
practical  dairyman  the  chemical  analysis  of  fodders 
and  feeds  showing  the  crude  nutrients  they  contain 


I3O  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

is  of  little  direct  value.  It  is  essential  for  him  to 
know,  however,  in  case  of  each  feeding  stuff,  what 
part  of  the  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates  as  shown 
by  analysis  is  actually  digested  by  the  animal.  This 
knowledge  has  been  gained  by  digestion  experi- 
ments which  have  been  repeatedly  conducted  at 
various  experiment  stations  with  a  large  number 
of  animals  under  different  conditions.  As  a  result 
of  this  careful  work  we  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  the 
digestibility  of  all  common  feeding  stuffs  and  the 
computation  of  rations  has  become  a  simple  problem 
in  arithmetic.  It  may  be  said,  in  passing,  that  the 
rates  of  digestibility  are  not  equal  for  the  same 
nutrient  in  different  foods,  hence  each  crude  nutrient 
has  its  respective  digestion  coefficient  (proportion 
digested  expressed  as  percentage). 

Feeding  standards. — Standards  at  best  can  only 
be  used  as  guides.  Successful  feeding  embodies 
something  besides  problems  in  mathematics,  and 
animal  life  and  nutrition  are  too  complex  to  be 
solved  in  this  way.  It  is  necessary  to  study  the 
requirements  of  individual  animals,  their  varying 
capacities,  ability  to  produce,  effect  of  various  feeds 
upon  the  health  and  condition  of  the  animal,  and  its 
appetite,  and  effect  upon  quality  of  the  product,  in 
order  to  obtain  the  maximum  production  at  the 
minimum  cost.  These  are  some  of  the  problems 
that  must  be  considered  by  the  skilful  feeder  if  the 
best  results  are  to  be  secured. 

Much  experimental  work  has  been  done  in  this 
country  and  in  Europe  with  a  view  to  determining 
the  fundamental  laws  of  nutrition  to  be  used  as  a 


BUSINESS    METHODS   IN    FEEDING  13! 

basis  for  the  economical  practice  of  stock  feeding. 
While  our  knowledge  of  these  principles  is  not  per- 
fect, sufficient  information  is  at  hand  to  give  us  a 
pretty  clear  idea  of  the  food  requirements  of  farm 
animals. 

It  should  be  understood  at  the  outset  that  all 
standards  are  the  result  of  practical  experience  and 
careful  observation.  Their  function  is  to  act  as 
guides  and  suggestions  rather  than  to  serve  as  rules 
to  be  strictly  followed  regardless  of  differences  in 
individuals,  breeds,  food  stuffs,  climate,  care, 
amount  of  product,  etc.  These  varying  conditions 
once  appreciated,  the  use  of  a  standard  is  of  great 
value. 

Strictly  speaking,  then,  a  standard  should  express 
the  proportions  of  digestible  nutrients  best  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  various  animals  and  to  the  purposes 
for  which  stock  is  kept. 

Advantages  of  a  feeding  standard  from  a  business 
standpoint. — The  question  naturally  arises,  with  so 
many  standards  and  so  many  limitations,  and  with 
cows,  fodders  and  feeds  of  all  sorts  and  descriptions, 
is  it  wise  to  attempt  to  follow  a  standard  in  feeding? 
This  question  can  be  answered  positively  in  the  af- 
firmative. By  adopting  a  standard,  the  dairyman 
will  give  closer  attention  to  his  cattle,  their  care  and 
their  feeding.  Without  a  standard,  there  is  danger 
of  the  dairyman  feeding  too  little  or  too  much,  or  an 
unbalanced  proportion  of  nutrients.  In  the  first  in- 
stance the  result  would  be  lower  production  and 
possibly  shrinkage  in  bodily  weight.  If  the  nutri- 
ents are  not  in  proper  proportion  the  result  is 


132  THE   BUSINESS   OF  DAIRYING 

waste,  or  in  some  instances  the  production  of 
flesh  rather  than  milk.  If  the  animals  are  over- 
fed their  health  is  endangered,  the  quality  of  the 
product  is  impaired,  and  there  is  also  waste.  In 
any  case  the  feeder  should  study  carefully  his  own 
conditions.  He  must  determine  for  himself  whether 
greater  profit  will  follow  large  production  coupled 
with  greater  cost,  or  low  production  with  less  ex- 
penditure ;  whether  it  will  pay  better  to  feed  largely 
home-grown  foods  and  a  fairly  wide  ration,  or 
to  sell  some  foods  and  buy  others  which  will  add 
more  of  the  nutrient  protein  to  the  ration,  thus  mak- 
ing it  narrower.  Ordinarily  with  good  cows,  good 
markets  and  a  reasonable  price  for  concentrated 
feeds,  approximate  conformity  to  standards  will  be 
found  most  profitable. 

Calculation  of  rations. — The  feeding  of  the  dairy 
cow  is  a  science  which  may  be  defined  as  supplying 
food  in  the  right  proportion  to  meet  the  various  re- 
quirements without  a  waste  of  food  nutrients.  The 
process  of  calculating  a  ration  is  much  simpler  than 
it  appears  at  first.  With  certain  coarse  foods  and 
grain  feeds  at  hand,  definite  weights  are  provision- 
ally chosen,  the  total  dry  matter  and  digestible 
nutrients  are  determined  and  the  result  compared 
with  the  standard.  If  the  result  is  close  to  the 
standard  the  work  is  done,  otherwise  the  additions 
or  subtractions  are  made,  or  possibly  some  other 
foods  are  substituted  until  the  standard  is  reached. 
An  example  will  best  explain  how  a  ration  is  calcu- 
lated. Let  us  as  a  preliminary  trial  take  some  feeds 
commonly  used  on  dairy  farms,  as  corn  silage, 


BUSINESS    METHODS    IN    FEEDING  133 

mixed  hay,  wheat  bran  and  corn  and  cob  meal.  (See 
Appendix.)  For  a  trial  ration  we  will  combine  the 
feeds  in  the  following  proportion  (these  amounts 
the  author  has  frequently  found  in  use  by  dairy- 
men) : 


Dry 

Matter 
351bs.  Corn  Silage..  .     7.35 
10    "    Mixed  Hay....    8.70 
5    "    Wheat  Bran...    4.40 
5    "    Corn  &  Cob  Meal  4.25 

Protein 
.315 
.620 
.610 
.220 

Carbohydrates 
-f  (Fat  X  2.  .7>) 
4.515 
4.600 
2265 
3.325 

Total 
Nutrients 
4.830 
5.220 
2.875 
3.545 

Nutrient 
Ratio 

Total  , 
Wolff's  Standard... 

,.  24.70 
..  24.  UO 

1.765 
2.5 

14.705 
13.4 

16.470 
15.9 

1:8.3 
1:5.4 

Comparing  the  nutrients  furnished  by  this  ration 
with  Wolff's  standard,  as  given  in  table,  we  find 
that  while  the  dry  matter  and  nutrients  are  not  far 
from  the  standard,  the  protein  is  much  too  low, 
the  carbohydrates  and  fat  are  somewhat  too  great 
and  the  nutritive  ratio  too  wide.  Had  we  studied 
carefully  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  four  feeds  enter- 
ing into  the  ration  we  should  readily  have  seen  that 
with  the  exception  of  wheat  bran  they  are  all  wider 
than  the  standard.  It  is  evident  that  one  of  the 
three  grains  must  be  substituted  for  one  that  is 
richer  in  protein,  or,  in  other  words,  a  very  narrow 
nutritive  ratio.  Consulting  the  table,  we  find  that 
among  such  are  linseed  meal,  cottonseed  meal, 
gluten  feeds,  brewers'  grains,  etc.  As  cottonseed 
meal  is  one  of  the  richest,  and  furnishes  protein  at 
a  comparatively  low  cost,  we  will  substitute  two 
pounds  of  this  for  two  pounds  of  the  corn-and-cob 
meal  in  the  ration. 

Again  taking  the  figures  from  the  table  (Appen- 
dix) ;  we  have ; 


134 


THE    BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


35  Ibs. 
10    " 
5    " 
3    " 
2    " 

Dry 

Matter 
Corn  Silage  7.35 
Mixed  Hay....    8.70 
Wheat  Bran  ...    4  40 
Corn  &  Cob  Meal  2.55 
Cottonseed  Meal  1.84 

Protein 
.315 
.620 
.610 
.132 
.744 

Carbohydrates 
-f(Fat  X  225) 
4.515 
4.600 
2.265 
1.995 
.888 

Total 
Nutrients 
4.830 
5.220 
2.875 
2.127 
1.632 

Nutrient 
Ratio 

Total 24.84 

Wolff's  Standard 24.00 


2.421 
25 


13.4 


16.684          1  :  5.89 
15.9  1  :  5.4 


Comparing  this  ration  with  the  standard  we  find 
it  corresponds  very  closely.  While  the  substitution 
of  cottonseed  meal  for  the  corn-and-cob  meal  adds 
somewhat  to  the  expense,  it  is  the  experience  of 
careful  feeders  that  the  increased  returns  will  more 
than  pay  for  properly  balancing  the  ration.  The 
same  result  might  be  obtained  by  substituting  other 
feeding  stuffs,  and  the  selection  should  be  made  by 
determining  which  can  be  most  economically  used 
to  supplement  the  home-grown  foods.  By  formu- 
lating a  properly  balanced  ration  containing  each  of 
the  foods  under  consideration,  and  by  assigning  the 
actual  market  values  per  pound  to  each  of  the  feeds 
in  the  ration,  the  cost  can  readily  be  ascertained 
and  the  cheapest  selected. 


CHAPTER  II 
OBSERVATIONS  BY  HAECKER* 

IT  has  long  since  been  recognized  that  because  of 
the  difference  in  composition  of  the  various  kinds  of 
feed  stuffs  no  single  standard  of  composition  for  all 
feeds  would  be  practicable,  and  yet,  while  there  is  as 

*Bull.   No.  79,  Min.   Exp.  Station, 


OBSERVATION    BY    HAECKER  135 

great  a  difference  in  the  composition  of  milks  as 
there  is  in  feed  stuffs,  there  has  been  no  adjustment 
of  the  nutrients  in  the  ration  to  the  quantity  and 
character  of  the  solids  contained  in  the  milk  yielded, 
though,  as  has  been  shown,  such  an  adjustment  ap- 
pears to  be  quite  simple  and  practicable.  If  in  for- 
mulating a  ration  it  is  deemed  necessary  in  economic 
milk  production,  to  take  note  of  the  fact  that  one 
feed  stuff  contains  12  per  cent,  of  protein  and  an- 
other 20  per  cent.,  is  it  not  equally  important  in  our 
attempt  to  adjust  the  ration  to  the  needs  of  the  cow 
in  milk  production  to  also  take  into  account  the  fact 
that  one  cow  may  give  milk  containing  3  per  cent. 
fat  while  that  of  another  may  contain  twice  as 
much?  It  would  seem  quite  as  consistent  to  feed  an 
animal  food  regardless  of  its  composition  as  to 
feed  an  assumed  balanced  ration  regardless  of  the 
composition  of  the  product  which  is  to  be  elaborated 
from  the  nutrients  in  the  food. 

Great  stress  has  been  placed  upon  the  fact  that  the 
nutrients  in  milk  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  approxi- 
mately one  to  five,  and  that  therefore  the  ration  for 
a  milch  cow  should  have  a  similar  nutritive  ratio; 
apparently  overlooking  the  fact  that  only  about  50 
per  cent,  of  the  ration  is  used  in  milk  production 
and  the  balance  for  maintenance  of  body.  If  note  is 
taken  of  the  fact  that  about  half  the  ration  is  used 
for  maintenance  and  that  the  maintenance  ration 
has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  I  to  10,  it  becomes  apparent 
that  for  the  production  of  milk  of  average  quality  by 
an  animal  of  average  milk  producing  powers  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration  should  be  approxi- 


136  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

mately  1 17.5.  But  since  animals  vary  in  productive 
powers,  and  since  this  variation  is  not  in  proportion 
to  weight  of  body,  it  follows  that  if  rations  are  ad- 
justed to  the  actual  requirements  of  animals  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  the  rations  will  also  vary. 

The  tables  of  nutrients  required  to  a  pound  of 
milk  ranging  in  per  cent,  fat  from  2.5  to  6.5,  are 
printed  on  pasteboard  cards  7x3  T/£  inches,  and  on 
the  reverse  side  a  table  giving  the  nutrients  in  a 
pound  of  ordinary  feeding  stuffs.  Given  the  daily 
yield  of  milk  in  pounds,  its  per  cent,  of  butter  fat, 
and  the  weight  of  the  cow  expressed  decimally,  it  is 
an  easy  matter  to  determine  the  required  ration.  As 
an  illustration,  suppose  a  mature  cow  weighs  825 
pounds,  gives  20  pounds  of  milk  daily,  testing  4  per 
cent,  butter  fat.  One  pound  of  4  per  cent,  milk  re- 
quires of  protein  .0467,  carbohydrates  .214,  and  of 
ether  extract,  .0159.  Multiplying  these  factors  by  20 
it  is  found  that  for  the  production  of  milk  she  needs 
.934  of  protein,  4.28  of  carbohydrates  and  .318  of 
ether  extract.  For  food  of  maintenance  multiply 
.07  protein,  .7  carbohydrates  and  .01  of  ether  ex- 
tract (maintenance  formula)  by  8.25,  which  gives 
protein  .578,  carbohydrates  5.78  and  ether  extract 
.082 ;  adding  to  this  the  nutrients  required  for  milk 
production,  we  have  1.51  of  protein,  10.06  carbohy- 
drates and  .40  ether  extract,  the  nutrients  required 
in  the  ration.  They  should  be  supplied  in  such 
manner  with  reference  to  bulk  that  it  will  satisfy 
the  appetite.  A  ration  like  this  should  be  largely 
made  up  of  roughage. 

But  suppose  a  cow  weighing  850  pounds  yields 


OBSERVATION    BY   HAECKER  137 

40  pounds  of  4  per  cent,  milk  daily,  the  required 
ration  would  be : 

Pro.    C.  H.    Fat  Pro.    C.  H.    Fat 

(.0467 — .214 — .0159)  x    40=  1.868 —  8.56 — .636 
(.07    —.7    —.01     )x8.5o=   .595—  5.95— .085 


Ration    required,     2.463 — 14.51 — .721 

A  ration  like  this  should  be  largely  composed  of 
grain  so  that  it  will  not  contain  so  much  bulk  that 
she  will  go  off  her  feed,  and  yet  furnish  the  nutri- 
ents required.  If  a  cow's  ration  is  adjusted  in  bulk 
with  reference  to  her  feeding  capacity  and  in  nutri- 
ment content  to  the  work  she  is  doing,  she  will  not 
be  overfed  nor  go  off  her  feed.  A  cow  will  not  do 
her  best  unless  she  is  so  fed  that  she  is  satisfied,  but 
the  ration  should  not  contain  more  nutriment  than 
she  actually  needs.  From  this  it  follows  that  cows 
do  not  require  a  uniform  nutritive  ratio  in  their  ra- 
tions, but  that  it  varies  according  to  the  quantity  of 
milk  yielded  and  weight  of  cow. 

To  illustrate,  let  us  take  a  cow  weighing  1,200 
pounds  and  yielding  20  pounds  of  milk  daily,  and 
one  weighing  850  pounds  yielding  40  pounds  of 
milk,  both  testing  4  per  cent.  fat. 

Pro.    C.  H.    Fat 

Nutrients  for  I  Ib.  of  4  per  cent.  milk..     .0467    .214    .0159 
Nutrients  for  i  cwt..  maintenance 07        .7        .01 

For  cow  weighing  1,200  pounds  and  yielding  20 
pounds  of  4  per  cent,  milk : 

Pro.  C  H.  Fat 

Nutrients  for  20  Ibs.  milk 93    4.28    .32 

Nutrients  for  12  cwt.  maintenance...     .84    8.40     .12 


Ration    required 1.7712.68     .44 

Nutritive    ratio 1-7-7 


138  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

For  cow  weighing  850  pounds  and  yielding  40 
pounds  of  4  per  cent,  milk : 

Pro.  C.  H.  Fat 

Nutrients  for  40  Ibs.  of  milk 1.87    8.56    .64 

Nutrients  for  8.5  cwt.  maintenance..     .59    5-95     .08 

Ration    required 2.46  14.51     .72 

Nutritive  ratio I  '.6.5 

But  if  the  cow  weighing  12  cwt.  yields  40  pounds 
of  milk  per  day  and  the  cow  weighing  8.5  cwt.  yields 
20  pounds,  the  nutrient  requirements  for  their  re- 
spective rations  according  to  table  will  be  as  fol- 
lows: 

Pro.  C.  H.  Fat 
Nutrients  for  40  Ibs.  of  4  per  cent. 

milk    1.87    8.56    .64 

Nutrients  for  12  cwt.  maintenance...     .84    8.40    .12 

Required   ration 2.71   16.96  .76 

Nutritive  ratio i  :6.8 

Pro.  C.  H,  Fat 
Nutrients   for  20  Ibs.   of  4  per   cent. 

milk  93     4.28  .32 

Nutrients  for  8.5  cwt.  maintenance..     .59     5.95  .08 

Required    ration 1.52  10.23     .40 

Nutritive  ratio I  '7-3 

In  prescribing  rations  upon  the  basis  of  flow  and 
quality  of  milk  and  weight  of  cow  and  using  the 
factors  given  in  the  table  the  nutritive  ratio  be- 
comes a  factor  of  very  little  importance  the  same  as 
is  the  case  with  dry  matter  in  a  ration.  If  the  nu- 
trients required  or  a  given  flow  of  milk  are  provided 
for  in  the  concentrates  the  food  of  maintenance  may 
be  secured  by  feeding  at  least  a  portion  of  the  rough- 
age ad  lib.  If  the  grain  mixture  has  a  nutritive  ra- 
tio of  i  to  5  or  5.5  it  will  fairly  meet  the  require- 
ments. 


OBSERVATION    BY    HAECKER  139 

In  adjusting  rations  for  cows  fresh  in  milk  note 
should  be  taken  of  surplus  nutriment  stored  in  the 
body  during  the  time  that  a  cow  goes  dry.  If  she 
gained  rapidly  in  weight  and  is  well  rounded  out 
with  fat  she  will  be  able  to  do  normal  work  during 
the  first  few  weeks  of  her  lactation  on  a  light  grain 
ration,  for  she  will  use  the  stored  fat  in  generating 
body  heat  and  energy  and  may  also  use  some  in  the 
elaboration  of  milk  solids.  So  as  this  milking-down 
in'  body  weight  takes  place  the  concentrates  should 
be  gradually  increased  so  that  she  will  be  on  full 
feed  by  the  time  she  reaches  her  normal  working 
weight.  From  then  on  the  amount  of  concentrates 
should  be  as  constant  as  the  flow  of  milk  will  per- 
mit until  after  the  sixth  month  of  gestation,  when  it 
should  be  gradually  decreased  so  she  will  go  dry 
during  the  seventh,  when  a  couple  of  pounds  a  day 
will  suffice. 

The  deduction  from  the  data  indicates  that  the 
Wolff  feeding  standard  for  dairy  cows  is  fairly  cor- 
rect in  the  average  amount  of  total  nutriment  re- 
quired, but  faulty  in  that  it  prescribes  an  excess  of 
protein  and  in  the  assumption  that  cows  need  nutri- 
ents in  proportion  to  their  weight. 

That  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standard  is  faulty  in 
that  it  prescribes  an  excess  of  protein  and  other 
nutrients,  does  not  designate  the  nutrients  required 
upon  a  basis  of  a  unit  in  weight  of  milk ;  does  not 
recognize  the  fact  that  quality  of  milk  yielded  should 
be  considered  as  well  as  quantity,  nor  that  heifers 
require  more  nutrients  for  a  given  flow  of  milk  than 
mature  cows. 


140  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

That  the  nutrient  requirements  in  milk  production 
depend : 

1.  Upon  the  weight  of  the  cow. 

2.  Upon  the  quantity  of  milk  yielded. 

3.  Upon  the  quality  of  the  milk,  and 

4.  Upon  the  age  of  the  cow. 

During  the  past  few  years  we  have  analyzed  some 
2,000  milkings  by  the  gravity  process,  and  compar- 
ing the  composition  of  the  milk  with  the  nutrients 
consumed  in  its  production,  we  find  that  the  net  nu- 
triment, that  is,  the  nutriment  in  a  ration  available 
for  product,  requires  1.75  of  nutriment  to  one  of 
product  yielded.  That  is,  reducing  the  digestible 
matter  in  the  productive  part  of  the  ration  to  a  com- 
mon energy  value,  and  the  milk  solids  yielded  to  a 
common  energy  value,  it  requires  1.75  units  of  nu- 
triments to  produce  a  unit  of  product.  Whenever 
a  cow  consumes  more  than  this  we  find  she  gains  in 
weight,  and  if  she  receives  less,  she  either  shrinks 
in  milk  or  loses  in  body  weight.  Applying  this  gen- 
eral rule  in  feeding  practice,  we  find  that  in  addition 
to  the  food  of  maintenance  a  cow  needs  1.75  of  nutri- 
ment to  a  unit  of  product. 

Some  claim  that  some  cows  will  yield  more  prod- 
uct for  a  unit  of  feed  than  others.  We  find  that  such 
is  not  the  case  if  a  cow  is  under  normal  condition. 
The  reason  why  they  feed  some  cows  more  for  a 
unit  of  product  than  others,  is  that  the  cow  will  con- 
sume the  feed,  though  she  does  not  need  it,  and  it 
takes  several  months  for  some  cows  to  begin  to 
utilize  the  surplus  nutriment  in  making  body  gain. 


OBSERVATION  BY  HAECKER 


141 


UNIVERSITY    OF   MINNESOTA— AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE 


Nutrients  in  a  Pound  of  Feeding  Stuffs 


Pro. 

C.  H. 

Fat 

Pro. 

C.  H. 

Fat 

CONCEN- 
TRATES 

Corn       .         

079 

.667 

.043 

ROUGHAGE- 
GREEN 
Fodder  corn  

.010 

.116 

.004 

Sorghum    . 

003 

122 

004 

Barley   .  . 

087 

.656 

.016 

Oats    

023 

183 

010 

Oats  

092 

.473 

.012 

Timothy  

012 

191 

003 

Wheat   .  . 

.102 

.692 

017 

live  

.099 

676 

Oil 

Red    top  

.021 

.212 

.003 

Clover    

.020 

.148 

007 

Millet    

089 

.450 

.032 

Alsike    

.027 

.121 

.006 

Kaffir    corn  

.078 

.571 

.029 

Alfalfa  

.039 

.127 

005 

Sorghum    

.070 

.521 

.031 

Cowpea 

018 

187 

002 

Shorts   

.122 

.500 

.038 

Bran 

129 

401 

034 

.031 

.110 

.005 

Peas 

168 

518 

007 

Barley   

.019 

.102 

.004 

Corn   oil   meal... 
Gluten  feed 

.202 
233 

.445 

507 

.088 
027 

SILAGE 

Corn 

009 

113 

007 

Oil   meal 

293 

327 

070 

Sorghum 

006 

li'i 

002 

Gluten    meal  .... 

322 

.422 

.025 

Cowpea 

015 

oo  ; 

009 

Cotton,    S.    M  

.372 

.169 

.122 

Clover    

020 

13' 

010 

Sojr  bean  

027 

OS~ 

013 

Alfalfa    

.030 

.085 

019 

ROUGHAGE- 
CURED 

Fodder  corn  

.025 

.346 

.012 

MISCELLA- 
NEOUS 

Potato  

009 

16'3 

001 

Stover    
Sorghum    

.017 
.024 

.328 
321 

.007 
016 

Sugar  beet  

.011 

.10-: 

.001 

Timothy     

.028 

.434 

.014 

Mangel    
Turnip 

.011 
010 

.0")! 
07° 

.001 
002 

Prairie  hay  
Red  top  
Oat   hay  

.029 
.048 
.043 

.415 

.469 
.464 

.012 
.010 
.015 

Rutabaga    
Cabbage   

.010 
.015 

.081 
.0)8 

.002 
.003 

Millet 

032 

48) 

010 

Marsh  hav  

.024 

.299 

003 

Rape   

.015 

.081 

.002 

Sov  bean 

109 

401 

015 

Beet   pulp  

.006 

.073 

.000 

Co  \vpea. 

107 

382 

012 

STRAW 

Clover    

.038 

.358 

017 

W  licit 

004 

SOI 

004 

Alsike  

.08i 

.425 

.015 

Oit 

012 

38 

008 

Alfalfa  

.110 

.396 

.012 

Barley 

007 

41  ° 

006 

142 


THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


FEEDING   STANDARD 
For  Heifers  in  Milk 


Coefficients  for  food  of  maintenance  per  cwt.,  and  nutrients  re- 
quired for  the  production  of  one  pound  of  milk  testing  a  given  per 
cent,  of  butter  fat. 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Ether 
Extract 


For  Maintenance 07 

Milk  Testing  2.5 0378 

2.6 0391 

2.7 0404 

2.8 0417 

2.9 0430 

3.0 0443 

3.1 0456 

3.2 0469 

3.3 0482 

3.4 0495 

3.5 0508 

3.6 0521 

3.7 0534 

3.8 0547 

3.9 0560 

4.0 0573 

4.1 0586 

4.2..... 0599 

4.3 0612 

4.4 0625 

4.5 0638 

4.6 0651 

4.7 0664 

4.8 0677 

4.9 0690 

5.0 0703 

5.1 0716 

5.2 0729 

5.3 0742 

5.4 .0755 

5.5 0768 

5.6 0781 

5.7 0794 

5.8 0807 

5.9 0820 

6.0 0833 

6.1 0846 

6.2 0859 

6.3 0872 

6.4 0885 

6.5...  .0898 


.01 


.188 
.194 
.200 
.206 
.212 
.218 
.224 


.242 
.248 
.254 
.260 
.266 
.272 
.278 
.284 
.290 
.296 
.302 
.308 
.314 
.320 
.326 
.332 
.338 
.344 
.350 
.356 


.374 

.380 


.404 
.410 
.416 
.422 
.428 


.0130 
.0134 
.0139 
.0143 
.0148 
.0152 
.0157 
.0161 
.0166 
.0170 
.0175 
.0179 
.0184 
.0188 
.0193 
.0197 
.0202 
.0206 
.0211 
.0215 
.0220 
.0224 
.0229 
.0233 
.0238 
.0242 
.0247 
.0251 
.0256 
.0260 
.0265 
.0269 
.0274 
.0278 
.0283 
.0287 
.0292 


.0310 


OBSERVATION   BY   HAECKER 


FEEDING  STANDARD 
For  Mature  Cows  in  Milk 


Coefficients  for  food  of  maintenance  per  cwt.,  and  nutrients  re- 
quired for  the  production  of  one  pound  of  milk  testing  a  given  per 
cent,  of  butter  fat. 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Ether 
Extract 


For  Maintenance 07 

Milk  Testing  2.5 0362 

2.6 0369 

2.7 0376 

2.8 0383 

2.9 0390 

3.0 0397 

3.1 0404 

3.2 0411 

3.3 0418 

3.4 0425 

3.5 0432 

3.6 0439 

3.7 0446 

3.8 0453 

3.9 0460 

4.0 0467 

4.1 0474 

4.2 0481 

4.3 0488 

4.4 0495 

4.5 0502 

4.6 0509 

4.7 0516 

4.8 0523 

4.9 0530 

5.0 0537 

5.1 0544 

5.2 0551 

5.3 0558 

5.4 .0565 

5.5 0572 

5.6 0579 

5.7 0586 

5.8 0593 

5.9 0600 

6.0 0607 

6.1 0614 

6.2 0621 

6.3 0628 

6.4 0635 

6.5...  .0642 


.7 


.01 


.164 
.167 
.170 
.174 
.177 
.181 
.184 
.187 
.190 
.194 
.197 
.200 
.204 
.207 
.210 
.214 
.217 
.220 
.223 
.227 
.230 
.233 
.237 
.240 
.243 
.247 
.250 
.253 
.256 


.270 
.273 
.276 
.280 
.283 


.296 


.0124 
.0126 
.0128 
.0131 
.0133 
.0136 
.0138 
.0140 
.0142 
.0145 
.0147 
.0149 
.0152 
.0154 
.0156 
.0159 
.0161 


.0170 
.0172 
.0175 
.0177 
.0179 
.0182 
.0185 
.0187 
.0189 
.0192 
.0194 
.0196 
.0199 
.0201 
.0203 
.0206 
.0208 
.0210 
.0212 
.0215 
.0217 


144  THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

CHAPTER  III 

HOME-GROWN  DAIRY  FOODS  FOR 
WINTER  USE 

GENERALLY  speaking,  the  nearer  we  can  approach 
to  growing  all  the  feeds  on  the  farm  the  more  money 
we  shall  make.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the 
coarse  foods,  all  of  which  should  be  grown  on  the 
farm.  Commercial  feeds  are  expensive ;  in  fact,  in 
the  past  few  years,  many  of  them  have  been  too  high 
priced  for  the  dairyman  who  wholesales  his  milk  for 
2//2  to  3  cents  per  quart  to  use  with  profit.  Besides 
growing  the  corn  crop  for  the  silo,  there  are  many 
crops  which  can  be  grown  and  made  into  hay,  and 
which  are  rich  in  the  important  nutrient  protein, 
hence  will,  in  a  large  measure,  take. the  place  of  fine 
feeds  in  balancing  the  winter  ration. 

Corn  is  one  of  the  most  important  home-grown 
crops  and  should  be  preserved  in  the  silo  and  form 
the  basis  of  the  winter  ration,  and  may  also  compose 
a  large  part  of  the  summer  ration  as  well,  if  desired. 
Some  of  the  reasons  why  silage  should  form  the 
basis  of  the  winter  ration  may  be  mentioned  briefly 
as  follows: 

It  is  succulent,  palatable  and  digestible,  and 
closely  resembles  the  green  forage  of  summer. 

It  is  prepared  for  use  at  small  cost,  the  average 
expense  of  harvesting  and  putting  it  in  the  silo  does 
not  usually  exceed  75  cents  per  ton. 

It  requires  comparatively  small  space  for  storage. 

It  is  ready  for  immediate  use  and  requires  but  lit- 
tle labor  to  place  it  before  the  animals. 


HOME-GROWN  DAIRY  FOODS  FOR  WINTER  USE       145 

There  is  but  little  loss  either  from  decomposition 
or  waste.  The  amount  from  both  of  these  sources, 
in  the  writer's  experience,  has  not  exceeded  5  per 
cent.  The  waste  from  feeding  dried  corn  stover  or 
corn  fodder  frequently  exceeds  25  per  cent. 

More  milk  can  be  produced  from  corn  silage 
than  from  dried  corn  fodder.  Experiments  have 
shown  that  12  per  cent,  more  milk  can  be  produced 
from  silage  than  from  corn  fodder  preserved  dry ; 
the  fodder  being  taken  from  the  same  field  in  both 
cases ;  or,  put  in  another  way,  corn  preserved  in  the 
silo  is  worth  $10  more  per  acre.  For  these  reasons 
the  silo  is  regarded  as  almost  a  necessity  in  modern 
dairying.  Indian  corn  is  better  adapted  than  any 
other  crop  for  the  silo,  and  is  at  present,  and  is  likely 
to  be  the  main  silage  crop  throughout  the  country. 
Combinations  of  cowpeas  and  corn  make  a  valuable 
food,  both  being  sown  in  the  same  drill  and  cut  with 
a  corn  harvester.  Such  crops  as  cowpeas,  soy  beans 
and  clovers  may  be  preserved  in  the  silo  without 
mixing  with  other  crops,  but  as  a  rule  the  silage 
from  these  crops  is  more  acid  and  has  a  disagreeable 
odor. 

The  following  series  of  experiments  by  the  author 
will  serve  to  show  the  value  of  certain  leguminous 
crops  as  substitutes  for  purchased  feeds. 

Alfalfa  hay. — Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  plants  known 
as  nitrogen  collectors  and  is  able  to  draw  its  nitro- 
gen directly  from  the  air.  The  roots  are  covered  with 
nodules  which  contain  countless  numbers  of  bac- 
teria, and  it  is  through  these  that  the  plant  secures  its 
nitrogen.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  supply  these 


146  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

bacteria.  This  may  be  done  by  using  soil  from  an 
old  field  or  by  cultures  of  bacteria  prepared  espe- 
cially for  the  purpose.  Alfalfa  and  other  plants  be- 
longing to  the  legume  family  are  the  best  for  the 
farmer  to  grow,  as  they  provide  not  only  a  food  rich 
in  nitrogen  but  lay  up  in  the  soil  large  amounts  of 
this  expensive  fertilizing  element  for  future  crops. 
Alfalfa  hay,  properly  cured,  has  no  superior  and  is 
readily  eaten  by  all  farm  animals.  It  is  not  a  com- 
plete ration  in  itself,  but  should  be  fed  with  corn 
fodder  silage,  roots,  or  other  carbonaceous  foods. 
For  the  reason  that  it  contains  large  amounts 
of  protein,  it  is  a  valuable  substitute  for  such 
feeds  as  wheat  bran  and  cottonseed  meal. 
Special  care  should  be  taken  in  making  alfalfa 
hay — it  should  be  cut  in  the  forenoon  and, 
when  well  wilted,  raked  into  windrows  and  put  into 
cocks,  where  it  should  remain  until  cured.  If  the 
leaves  are  allowed  to  become  dry  and  brittle  the 
most  nutritious  and  valuable  part  of  the  hay  will  be 
lost.  Three  to  six  tons  should  be  secured  per  acre. 
Experiments  with  alfalfa  hay.* — Four  cows  were 
in  the  test,  which  included  a  period  of  32  days.  The 
"alfalfa  hay  ration"  consisted  of  13  pounds  of  al- 
falfa hay  and  30  pounds  of  corn  silage.  The  "feed 
ration"  fed  in  comparison  with  this  was  composed 
of  30  pounds  corn  silage,  5  pounds  mixed  hay,  6 
pounds  wheat  bran,  and  5  pounds  dried  brewers' 
grains.  The  two  rations  contained  practically  the 
same  amount  of  protein  (3.08  and  3.13  pounds,  re- 
spectively). The  nutritive  ration  was  estimated  at 

*Bull,  No.  161,  N.  J.  Exp.  Station. 


HOME-GROWN  DAIRY  FOODS  FOR  WINTER  USE      147 

1 :  5  in  the  alfalfa  hay  ration  and  1 : 6.1  in  the  feed 
ration.  The  alfalfa  ration  was  produced  entirely  on 
the  farm,  while  over  two-thirds  of  the  most  expen- 
sive nutrient  protein  in  the  feed  ration  was  pur- 
chased. While  about  4  per  cent,  more  milk  was  pro- 
duced from  the  purchased  feed  ration,  the  in- 
crease was  not  enough  to  offset  the  greater 
cost  of  production,  hence  the  alfalfa  ration 
proved  the  more  profitable.  The  cost  of  food 
used  to  produce  106  pounds  of  milk  and  one 
pound  of  butter  was  55.9  cents  and  n.i  cents,  re- 
spectively, for  the  alfalfa  ration,  and  83.9  cents  and 
16.7  cents  for  the  feed  ration.  The  profit  from  feed- 
ing the  home-grown  ration  (where  milk  is  worth 
$i  per  hundred)  exceeded  that  of  the  purchased  feed 
ration  by  about  $2  per  cow  per  month,  or  with 
a  herd  of  25  cows  the  gain  would  amount  to  $50. 
The  cows  on  the  home-grown  ration  also  gained  10 
pounds  more  in  weight.  On  the  basis  of  the  experi- 
ment when  mixed  hay  (timothy  and  clover)  sells  for 
$16  per  ton  and  when  wheat  bran  costs  $26  per  ton 
and  dried  brewers'  grains  $20  per  ton  (as  was  the 
case  when  the  experiment  was  made),  alfalfa  hay  is 
worth  $24.52  per  ton  as  a  substitute  for  mixed  hay, 
wheat  bran  and  dried  brewers'  grains  fed  in  the 
proportion  indicated  in  the  ration. 

Experiments  with  crimson  clover  hay. — This  is 
another  valuable  leguminous  crop  for  the  dairy 
farmer  and  supplies  a  palatable  food  that  can  be 
substituted  for  commercial  feeds  to  good  advantage. 
Where  it  can  be  successfully  grown  it  is  one  of  the 
most  useful  plants,  from  the  standpoint  of  yield, 


148  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

composition,  cost,  and  ease  with  which  it  is  grown. 
It  may  be  seeded  at  the  rate  of  12  to  15  pounds  per 
acre  in  corn  at  the  last  cultivation,  or  after  a  crop 
of  potatoes,  without  interfering  with  regular  rota- 
tions. The  yield  of  hay  will  range  from  one  to  three 
tons  per  acre.  The  method  of  curing  should  be 
similar  to  that  described  for  alfalfa. 

A  feeding  experiment.* — This  experiment  was 
conducted  with  four  cows  and  continued  30  days.  The 
"crimson  clover  ration"  contained  16.4  pounds  of 
crimson  clover  hay  and  30  pounds  of  corn  silage. 
This  was  used  in  comparison  with  a  "purchased  feed 
ration"  composed  of  30  pounds  corn  silage,  5  pounds 
mixed  hay,  6  pounds  wheat  bran,  and  5  pounds  dried 
brewers'  grains.  The  two  rations  supplied  practically, 
the  same  amount  of  dry  matter  and  protein  and  car- 
bohydrates, while  the  fat  was  somewhat  greater  in 
the  feed  ration.  The  nutritive  ratio  for  the  crimson 
clover  hay  ration  was  1 15.7  and  for  the  feed  ration 
1 :6.i.  The  crimson  clover  and  silage  were  produced 
entirely  upon  the  farm,  while  over  two-thirds  of  the 
most  expensive  nutrient  protein  in  the  feed  ration 
was  purchased.  The  home-grown  ration  proved  a 
practical  one  from  the  feeder's  standpoint.  There 
was  a  saving  of  18.3  cents  per  hundred  in  the  cost 
of  the  production  of  milk,  and  3.73  cents  per  pound 
in  the  cost  of  producing  butter  by  feeding  the  home- 
grown ration.  Stated  in  another  form,  the  gain 
from  feeding  this  home-grown  ration  over  the  pur- 
chased feed  ration  amounted  to  $1.10  per  cow  per 
month.  On  the  basis  of  this  experiment,  when 

*N.  J.  Exp.  Station  Bull,  No.  174,  by  the  author. 


HOME-GROWN  DAIRY  FOODS  FOR  WINTER  USE      149 


wheat  bran  costs  $26  per  ton,  as  was  the  case  at  the 
time  this  experiment  was  conducted,  dried  brewers' 
grains  $20  per  ton,  and  mixed  hay  (timothy  and  red- 
top)  $16  per  ton,  and  when  these  feeds  are  used  in 
the  proportion  indicated  in  the  ration,  crimson  clover 
hay  is  worth  $16.55  Per  ton  as  a  substitute  for  the 
above  feeds. 

Crimson  clover  hay  and  cowpea  silage  experi- 
ment.— This  experiment  was  similar  to  the  one  just 
described  in  respect  to  the  number  of  cows  used  and 
the  length  of  time  covered  by  the  test.  The  pur- 
pose was  to  compare  the  value  of  a  ration  that  could 
readily  be  grown  on  the  farm  with  a  ration  in  which 

Cowpea  Silage  and  Crimson  Clover  Ration 


TOTAL  NUTRIENTS 

£ 

. 

a 

,  8 

Sjjt 

C  cS 

b 

$ 

^ 

•§£ 

sfi-J 

5 

OH 

£ 

0^3 

i«2 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

33  Ibs.  Cowpea  Silage  

6.01 

.99 

.46 

3.85 



10  Ibs.  Crimson  Clover  Hay  

8.89 

1.53 

.22 

6.38 



6  Ibs.  Corn-and-Cob  Meal  

5.09 

.51 

.21 

4.28 



Total  

19.99 

3.03 

.83 

14.51 

1:6 

Feed  Ration 


36  Ibs   Corn  Silage 

9  01 

69 

47 

7  48 

5  Ibs    Mixed   Hay 

4  47 

31 

13 

3  77 

4  Ibs    Dried    Brewers'   Grains 

3  66 

97 

29 

2  31 

2  5  Ibs   Cotton-seed    Meal  . 

2  30 

1  05 

32 

74 

Total  

19.44 

3.02 

1  21 

14  30 

1:6 

I5O  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

the  protein  was  largely  purchased  in  the  form  of 
feeds  commonly  used  by  dairymen,  namely,  dried 
brewers'  grains  and  cottonseed  meal. 

It  was  planned  to  have  each  ration  contain  the 
same  amount  of  total  protein,  the  amount  of  milk 
obtained,  other  things  being  equal,  being  the  meas- 
ure of  the  relative  value  of  the  protein  in  the  two 
rations.  A  comparison  of  the  rations  shows  that 
they  contained  practically  the  same  amount  of  dry 
matter  and  protein,  namely,  19.99  pounds  and  3.03 
pounds,  respectively,  in  the  silage  and  clover  ration, 
and  19.44  pounds  and  3.02  pounds  in  the  feed  ration. 
The  nutritive  ratio  was  calculated  and  found  to  be 
1 :6  in  each  ration. 

During  the  first  period  Lot  I.  was  fed  the  silage 
and  clover  ration,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  sec- 
ond period  this  lot  was  changed  to  the  feed  ration. 
Lot  II.  was  fed  during  the  first  period  on  the  feed 
ration  and  during  the  second  period  on  the  silage 
and  clover  ration.  The  object  of  the  changes  was 
to  equalize  the  effect  of  advance  in  the  period  of 
lactation. 

The  results  showed  that  the  amount  of  milk  and 
butter  produced  from  the  two  rations  was  practi- 
cally the  same.  The  home-grown  ration  producing 
1,485.1  pounds  of  milk  and  65.89  pounds  of  butter 
fat,  and  the  feed  ration  1,473  pounds  of  milk  and 
68.97  pounds  of  butter  fat,  a  difference  of  12.1 
pounds  of  milk  in  favor  of  the  home-grown  ration. 
These  results  show  that  it  was  practical,  in  this 
instance,  from  the  feeder's  standpoint,  to  grow  the 
entire  ration  upon  the  farm. 


HOME-GROWN  DAIRY  FOODS  FOR  WINTER  USE       15! 

In  calculating  the  cost,  the  foods  grown  on  the 
farm,  with  the  exception  of  silage,  were  placed  at 
the  market  price,  namely,  $12  per  ton  for  crimson 
clover  hay,  $16  for  mixed  hay,  and  $17.10  per  ton  for 
corn-and-cob  meal.  The  corn  and  cowpea  silage 
were  placed  at  the  cost  of  production,  $3  per  ton. 
The  cost  of  the  purchased  feeds  was  $20  per  ton  for 
dried  brewers'  grains  and  $30  per  ton  for  cottonseed 
meal.  The  cost  of  foods  used  to  produce  100  pounds 
of  milk  and  one  pound  of  butter  from  the  two  ra- 
tions was  66.9  cents  and  15.1  cents,  respectively,  for 
the  crimson  clover  hay  and  cowpea  silage  ration, 
and  66.9  cents  and  14.9  cents  for  the  feed  ration. 

While  it  is  shown  that  practically  the  same 
amount  of  milk  and  butter  was  produced  from  the 
two  rations,  and  at  nearly  the  same  cost,  it  should 
be  noted  that  the  mixed  hay,  crimson  clover  hay 
and  corn-and-cob  meal  were  produced  on  the  farm 
and  charged  up  in  the  ration  at  market  prices. 
There  was,  therefore,  a  considerable  gain  from  feed- 
ing the  home-grown  ration,  inasmuch  as  there  was 
a  wide  margin  between  the  actual  cost  of  these 
foods  and  the  market  price. 

For  example,  the  crimson  clover  hay  was  grown 
in  corn  as  a  catch  crop,  costing  $4  per  ton,  hence  in 
selling  it  to  the  dairy  for  $12  per  ton  (the  price  used 
in  calculating  the  cost  of  the  ration),  there  was  a 
gain  of  $8  per  ton.  There  was  also  a  considerable 
profit  over  the  cost  of  production  for  the  mixed  hay 
and  corn-and-cob  meal,  which  were  sold  to  the  dairy 
for  $16  and  $17.10  per  ton,  respectively. 

These  data  are  significant  in  showing  not  only  the 


152  THE    BUSINESS    OF   DAIRYING 

value  of  such  home-grown  crops  as  cowpea  silage 
and  crimson  clover,  but  that  a  ration  may  be  pro- 
duced on  the  farm  that  is  equally  good  as  a  milk 
producer  as  one  in  which  the  fine  feeds  are  pur- 
chased. 

The  weights  of  the  cows  remained  practically  the 
same  during  the  feeding  of  both  rations. 

Cowpea  hay.* — We  have  in  cowpea  hay  one  of 
the  cheapest  and  most  productive  crops  for  dairy 
animals.  "The  feeding  value  of  cowpea  hay  is 
fully  equal  to  that  of  the  best  of  red  clover  and  is 
almost  equal  to  alfalfa,  and  as  much  forage  can  be 
produced  from  cowpeas  in  80  days  as  red  clover 
will  yield  in  15  months."  (Grantham.) 

More  real  feeding  value  will  usually  be  secured 
when  the  crop  is  preserved  as  hay  rather  than  silage. 
The  crop  is  cured  similar  to  alfalfa.  After  it  is  well 
wilted  it  should  be  put  up  in  cocks  not  too  great  in 
diameter  and  allowed  to  remain  two  or  three  days 
until  cured,  then  hauled  to  the  barn  without  further 
handling. 

Experiment  in  substituting  cowpea  hay  for  pur- 
chased feeds. — A  ration  consisting  of  17  pounds  of 
cowpea  hay  (1.  p.  27)  and  36  pounds  of  corn  silage 
was  compared  with  a  ration  made  up  of  5  pounds  of 
corn  stalks,  36  pounds  of  corn  silage,  4  pounds  of 
wheat  bran,  3  pounds  of  dried  brewers'  grains  and 
2  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal.  The  cowpea  hay  ra- 
tion contained  3.06  pounds  of  protein  and  had  an 
estimated  nutritive  ratio  of  1 : 6.  The  feed  ration 
contained  3.20  pounds  of  protein  and  had  an  esti- 

*N.  J.  Exp.  Station  Bull.  No.  174,  by  the  author. 


HOME-GROWN  DAIRY  FOODS  FOR  WINTER  USE      153 

mated  nutritive  ratio  of  1:5.  The  cowpea  ration 
was  produced  entirely  on  the  farm,  while  two-thirds 
of  the  protein  of  the  feed  ration  was  purchased.  On 
the  cowpea  hay  ration  the  daily  yield  averaged 
23.7  pounds  of  milk,  containing  3.86  per  cent,  of  fat; 
on  the  feed  ration  it  was  25.7  pounds  of  milk  con- 
taining 4.11  per  cent,  of  fat.  The  feed  ration  pro- 
duced 8.3  per  cent,  more  milk,  or  15.2  per  cent,  more 
butter,  than  the  cowpea  ration.  At  market  prices 
for  feeding  stuffs  the  cost  of  producing  100  pounds 
of  milk  was  39.8  cents,  and  of  producing  one  pound 
of  butter  8.82  cents,  when  the  cowpea  hay  ration 
was  fed.  When,  however,  the  feed  ration  was  given 
the  cost  of  production  was  60.5  cents  per  hundred 
for  milk  and  12.6  cents  per  pound  for  butter.  With 
milk  at  $i  per  hundred  these  results  indicated  an 
increased  profit  for  a  herd  of  30  cows  of  $37.20  per 
month  from  the  home-grown  ration  over  the  feed 
ration.  However,  it  is  believed  that  a  combination 
of  coarse  and  fine  feeds  is  necessary  to  produce  the 
best  results. 

Soy  bean  silage  and  alfalfa  hay. — The  soy  bean  is 
a  plant  similar  to  the  cowpea  but  grows  a  little 
slower,  has  a  tougher  stalk,  and  is  not  quite  as  palat- 
able or  quite  as  sure  a  crop.  However,  good  yields 
are  secured  when  conditions  are  favorable,  and  the 
crop  is  worthy  of  mention  as  a  home-grown  food 
and  a  possible  substitute  for  expensive  purchased 
feeds. 

Experiment  with  soy  bean  silage  and  alfalfa  hay. 
— A  home-grown  ration  consisting  of  36  pounds 
of  'soy  bean  silage,  8  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay, 


154  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

and  6  pounds  of  corn  meal.  The  protein  content 
of  the  ration  was  3.64  pounds  and  the  esti- 
mated nutritive  ration  was  1 :  5.  The  feed  ration 
consisted  of  6  pounds  of  corn  stalks,  36  pounds  of 
corn  silage,  4  pounds  of  wheat  bran,  4  pounds  of 
dried  brewers'  grains,  and  2  pounds  of  cottonseed 
meal.  The  protein  content  was  3.45  pounds  and  the 
estimated  nutritive  ratio  was  1 : 6.  The  average 
daily  yield  of  the  milk  per  cow  was  27.2  pounds  test- 
ing 3.2  per  cent,  of  fat  on  the  home-grown  ration, 
and  25.7  pounds  testing  3.8  per  cent,  of  fat  on  the 
purchased  ration.  The  home-grown  ration  pro- 
duced, therefore,  5.81  per  cent,  more  milk  than  the 
purchased  ration.  The  butter  production  was  prac- 
tically the  same  on  both  rations.  On  the  home- 
grown ration  the  food  cost  of  100  pounds  of  milk 
was  56.5  cents  and  of  one  pound  of  butter  was  13.5 
cents,  and  on  the  purchased  ration  65  and  14.6  cents, 
respectively,  showing  a  considerable  saving  when 
the  home-grown  feeding  stuffs  were  used. 

Another  experiment  showed  that  when  protein 
was  supplied  in  the  form  of  cottonseed  meal,  rather 
than  wheat  bran  and  dried  brewers'  grains,  the  sav- 
ing in  cost  of  production  was  11.9  cents  per  100 
pounds  of  milk  and  3.3  cents  per  pound  of  butter. 

Advantages  of  home-grown  coarse  foods. — It 
should  be  noted  that  the  coarse  foods  mentioned  in 
the  above  experiments  included  hay  made  from  al- 
falfa, crimson  clover,  and  cowpeas,  also  silage  from 
soy  beans  and  cowpeas  were  produced  on  the  farm 
and  charged  in  the  rations  at  market  prices.  There 
was,  therefore,  considerable  gain  in  feeding  the 


HOME-GROWN  DAIRY  FOODS  FOR  WINTER  USE      155 

home-grown  rations  not  mentioned  above,  inasmuch 
as  there  was  a  wide  margin  between  the  actual  cost 
of  these  foods  and  the  market  price.  For  example, 
the  crimson  clover  hay  was  grown  in  the  corn  as  a 
catch  crop,  costing  $4  per  ton,  hence  in  selling  it  to 
the  dairy  for  $12  per  ton  (the  price  used  in  calcula- 
ting the  cost  of  the  ration)  there  was  a  gain  of  $8  per 
ton.  An  average  stand  of  crimson  clover  will  yield 
two  tons  of  hay  per  acre,  which  at  $8  would  make  the 
gain  per  acre  200  per  cent,  over  the  cost.  The  gain 
per  acre  for  alfalfa  hay  was  even  greater,  amounting 
to  38.62  when  sold  to  the  dairy  for  $14  per  ton,  the 
price  used  in  calculating  the  cost  of  the  alfalfa  ra- 
tion. While  it  will  usually  pay  most  dairymen,  and 
pay  them  well,  to  purchase  some  fine  feeds  in  the 
form  of  cottonseed  meal  and  other  concentrates,  the 
fact  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized  that  it  pays 
to  grow  a  large  proportion  of  the  ration  on  the  farm, 
and  that  this  practice  results  in  reducing  the  cost 
of  milk  and  butter  production. 

Illustrating  how  losses  in  dairying  may  be  due  to 
purchasing  expensive  feeds. — One  dairyman  was 
found  complaining  that  dairying  did  not  pay,  al- 
though he  had  fairly  good  cows  and  fed  an  abun- 
dance of  good  food.  On  examining  his  conditions 
it  was  shown  that  during  the  month  of  January  he 
milked  33  cows  yielding  an  average  of  2  gallons  of 
milk  daily,  which  sold  for  17^  cents  per  gallon.  His 
daily  ration  consisted  of  10  pounds  mixed  hay,  15 
pounds  corn  stover,  35  pounds  corn  silage,  2  pounds 
wheat  bran,  2  pounds  buffalo  gluten,  3  pounds  corn 
bran,  2  pounds  cottonseed  meal,  2  pounds  beet  pulp, 


156  THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

and  4  pounds  molasses  grains.  The  total  ration 
cost  36.5  cents,  or  1.5  cents  more  than  the  receipts 
for  the  milk.  He  was,  therefore,  not  only  milking 
and  feeding  his  cows  for  nothing,  but  losing  50 
cents  a  day  besides.  All  the  food  except  the  silage 
was  purchased,  when  a  large  part  of  it  might  have 
been  raised.  The  amount  of  grain  fed  was  too  heavy 
and  one-fourth  of  it  was  probably  wasted.  On  the 
basis  of  the  food  used  during  the  month  indicated, 
the  cost  of  feed  for  each  cow  was  $133.22  a  year. 

The  above  is  quite  a  contrast  from  the  following 
which  is  quoted  from  Hoard. 

"The  total  cost  of  keeping  a  cow  in  my  herd  the 
past  year  is  as  follows : 

Pasturage    $5-OO 

6  pounds  of  grain  a  day  for  210  days  at  $20  per  ton  12.60 

10  pounds  alfalfa  hay  a  day  at  $10  per  ton 10.50 

6,300  pounds  ensilage  at  $i   per  ton 3.15 

Hay  and  ensilage  used  in  summer 3.00 

$34-25 

"On  this  sort  of  feed  with  good  care  the  herd  aver- 
aged in  1906,  per  cow,  creamery  basis,  $76.27,  with 
the  addition  of  $16.20  for  skim  milk ;  making  a  total 
of  $92.47  at  the  pail.  From  this  subtract  cost  of 
food  and  we  have  $58.22  profit  at  the  pail  above  cost 
of  food.  Understand  I  have  reduced  everything  to 
the  creamery  basis.  Understand  another  thing,  that 
the  cows  were  good.  It  would  be  a  reproach  to  me 
as  a  farmer  to  keep  any  other.  I  cannot  afford  to 
fool  away  my  time  and  labor  and  food  on  poor  cows. 
I  must  have  the  best  cows  I  can  produce  to  make 
this  feed  and  labor  answer  back  with  the  highest 
profit  from  it.  The  herd  averaged  nearly  400  pounds 


HOME-GROWN  DAIRY  FOODS  FOR  WINTER  USE      157 


of  butter  per  cow,  including  heifers  and  all.  I  have 
no  more  business  to  put  costly  food  into  a  wasteful 
machine  than  I  have  to  thresh  wheat  with  a  ma- 
chine that  would  send  half  the  grain  into  a  straw 
pile.  It  has  paid  me  well  to  think  hard,  read  and 
study  on  these  things.  Is  there  any  reason  on  earth 
why  it  will  not  pay  you  to  do  the  same  thing?" 

Illustrating  the  value  of  considering  the  cost  in 
selecting  dairy  foods. — The  value  of  carefully  select- 
ing a  ration,  from  the  standpoint  of  economy,  is 
very  clearly  illustrated  in  an  experiment  at  the  Ohio 

Average  Daily  Rations 


Lbs. 

FEED 

Dry 

Matter. 
Lbs. 

Protein. 
Lbs. 

Crude 
Fiber. 
Lbs. 

Nitro- 
Lren-free 
Extract. 
Lbs. 

Ether 
Extract 
Lbs 

I— SILAGE  RATION 


58 

Silage 

10  83 

1  369 

2  71 

5  43 

.531 

6.8 

Mixed  Hay  

5.77 

0.550 

1.90 

2.761 

.211 

2. 

Oil   Meal  

1.80 

0.664 

0.19 

0.768 

.06 

2 

Bran    

1.76 

0.308 

0.18 

1.078 

.08 

Total  

20.16 

2.801 

4.98 

10.037 

.882 

II— GRAIN  RATION 


4  7 

Stover                          .  . 

3.29         0.211 

1.15 

1.70 

.063 

6  4 

Mixed  Hay                .  .. 

5  43         0.518 

1.79 

2.60 

.198 

2  5 

Oil   Meal  

2.25         0.83 

0.237 

0.96 

.075 

5 

4.25         0.46 

0.095 

3.435 

.19 

6 

Bran          

5.29         0.924 

0.54 

3.234 

.24 

Total  

20.51         2.943 

3.812 

11.929 

.766 

158 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


State  station.  Two  rations  were  compounded  hav- 
ing practically  the  same  composition,  yet  differing 
very  materially  in  cost.  These  were  fed  to  two  lots 
of  cows  of  five  each,  for  a  period  of  four  months,  and 
the  results  carefully  tabulated. 

Aside  from  the  standpoint  of  economy,  another 
object  of  this  test  was  to  determine  whether  silage 
could  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  grain  usually  fed  to  dairy  cows.  The 
silage  used  was  a  mixture  of  one  ton  of  soy  beans 
and  cow  peas  to  two  and  one-half  tons  of  silage  corn. 
The  two  rations,  as  shown  above,  contained  about 
the  same  amount  of  nutrients.  The  cost  of  the 
silage  ration,  however,  averaged  13.48  cents  daily, 

Dry  Matter  Consumed  per  Day 

In  silage  ration 20.16  Ibs. 

In  grain  ration 20.51  Ibs. 

Product  per  Hundred  Pounds  of  Dry  Matter 


RATION 

Milk 
Lbs. 

Fat 
Lbs. 

Silage 

96.7 
81.3 

5.08 
3.90 

Grain 

Cost  of  Feed  per  Unit  of  Product 

RATION 

Per 

100  Lbs. 
Milk 

Per 

1  Lb. 
Fat 

Silage  

$0.687 
1.055 

$0.131 
0.221 

Grain  

HOME-GROWN  DAIRY  FOODS  FOR  WINTER  USE      1^9 

while  the  feed  ration  cost  17.73  cents.  The  average 
monthly  yield  of  milk  amounted,  in  the  silage  ra- 
tion, to  588.7  pounds  per  cow,  and  the  feed  ration  to 


THE  DAIRYMAN'S  BEST  INVESTMENT — THE  SILO 

503.8  pounds.  The  profit  over  feed  amounted,  in  the 
silage  ration,  to  $5.86  per  cow,  monthly,  and  in  the 
feed  ration  to  $2.46. 

Putting  the  results  in  another  form,  the  following 
tabulation  shows  the  product  per  hundred  pounds 
of  dry  matter. 

A  difference  of  37  cents  in  the  cost  of  100  pounds 
of  milk,  or  a  saving  of  9  cents  in  the  cost  of  a  pound 
of  butter,  is  well  worth  considering.  This  illus- 
trates very  pointedly  the  results  of  good  business 
methods  in  feeding. 

ILLUSTRATING  THE  LOSSES  FROM  FEED- 
ING POOR  RATIONS* 

While  progressive  dairymen  know  the  importance 
of  good  feeding,  yet  the  rations  used  by  many  show 

*Bull.  No.  137,  N.  J.  Exp.  Station,  by  the  author. 


i6o 


THE   BUSINESS   OF  DAIRYING 


that  too  little  attention  is  given  to  this  part  of  their 
business.  The  total  nutrients  supplied  are  generally 
sufficient,  but  the  rations  frequently  contain  an  ex- 
cess of  the  heat  and  fat-forming  elements,  i.e.,  car- 
bohydrates and  fat,  and  too  little  protein,  the  nutri- 
ent very  essential  in  the  production  of  milk.  As  no 
other  food  compound  can  take  the  place  of  protein 
and  perform  its  functions,  its  deficiency  must  neces- 
sarily result  in  decreasing  the  milk  production.  The 
food-stuffs  which  are  ordinarily  grown  on  the  farm 
are  poor  in  protein,  which  doubtless  accounts  in 
part  for  the  deficiency  of  this  compound  in  farm- 
ers' rations.  If  a  farmer  can  afford  to  produce  milk 
at  all,  he  will  generally  find  it  profitable  to  buy 
feeds  containing  a  high  percentage  of  protein,  in 
order  in  the  preparation  of  rations  to  properly  bal- 
ance the  home-grown  products. 

An  experiment  was   conducted  to  show  the  ad- 
vantages of  good  feeding  in  the  production  of  milk 


(H 

DIGESTIBLE 

GOOD  RATION 

i 

>> 

1 

*• 

A 

o> 

Is 

£ 

£ 

2 

Z£ 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

30  Ibs.  Silage    

7.69 

.37 

.21 

4.48 

5  Ibs.  Hay   (Timothy)    

4.22 

.17 

.06 

2  23 

4  Ibs.  Wheat   Bran  

3.53 

.54 

.13 

1.80 

4  Ibs.  Dried  Brewers'   Grains  

3  65 

.67 

.22 

1  36 

2  Ibs.  Linseed    Meal  

1  82 

50 

14 

69 

Total  

.  *  • 

20  91 

2  34 

76 

10  56 

1'5  3 

POOR  RATION 

12  Ibs.  Cornstalks     

10  78 

41 

11 

6  50 

8  Ibs.  Hay    (Timothy)  

6.75 

.27 

.10 

3.57 

4  Ibs.  Corn   Meal  

3.42 

.3:2 

.12 

2.63 



Total  

20.95 

100 

.33 

12.70,1:13.5 

HOME-GROWN  DAIRY  FOODS  FOR  WINTER  USE      l6l 


and  butter.  Four  cows  were  included  in  the  test, 
which  continued  for  two  months.  Two  were  fed  for 
the  first  30  days  on  the  "good  ration"  and  the  other 
two  on  the  "poor  ration,"  then  the  rations  were  re- 
versed in  order  to  equalize  the  effect  advance  of 
lactation. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  total  dry  matter  as 
well  as  the  total  digestible  nutrients  were  prac- 
tically the  same  in  both  rations,  but  a  study  of  the 
separate  food  compounds  shows  that  the  protein 
and  fat  in  the  poor  ration  were  less  than  half  the 
amount  contained  in  the  good  ration,  with  an  excess 
of  carbohydrates,  thus  making  the  nutritive  ratio 
extremely  wide.  The  feeding  of  rations  similar  in 
character  to  the  poor  one  is  quite  common  in  many 
dairy  sections. 

THE  YIELD  OF  MILK  AND  FAT 

The  milk  from  each  cow  was  weighed  daily,  and 
sampled  and  analyzed  for  percentage  of  butter  fat. 
The  following  table  shows  the  daily  yields  of  milk 
and  its  composition  as  well  as  the  total  yield  per 
cow  of  milk  and  of  fat  during  each  period  of  the 

test: 

Summary  of  Test 


GOOD  RATION 

POOR  RATION 

Milk 

Fat 

Fat 

Butter 

Milk 

Fat 

Fat 

Butter 

Cow  No  1 

Lbs. 

949.9 
538.5 
500.4 
712.9 

P.  c. 

4.72 
3.55 
4.48 
3.65 

Lbs. 
41.81 
19.03 
22.  39 

25.98 

Lbs. 
52.31 

22.28 
26.12 
30.31 

Lbs. 
613.6 
435.6 
402.5 
562.5 

P.  c. 

4.02 
3.45 
4.61 
4.01 

Lbs. 

24.68 
15.01 
18.58 
22.58 

Lbs. 
28.79 
17.51 
21.65 
26.35 

Cow  No.  2  
Cow  No.  3  
Cow  No   4 

Total  and 
average  — 

2,701.7 

4.16 

112.32 

131.04 

2,014.2 

4.01 

80.84 

94.32 

l62  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

This  summary  shows  that  687.5  pounds,  or  34.1 
per  cent.,  more  milk,  and  31.47  pounds,  or  38.9  per 
cent.,  more  fat  were  produced  from  the  good  ration 
than  from  the  poor  ration,  an  actual  gain  in  produc- 
tion of  over  one-third. 

The  cost  of  the  food  used  to  produce  100  pounds 
of  milk  and  I  pound  of  butter  was  practically  the 
same  for  the  two  rations,  viz.,  70.2  cents  and  14.5 
cents,  respectively,  for  the  good  ration,  and  70.3 
cents  and  15  cents  for  the  poor  ration,  yet  34.1  per 
cent,  more  milk  and  38.9  per  cent,  more  butter  were 
produced  from  the  good  ration  than  from  the  poor 
ration  with  practically  the  same  amount  of  labor 
and  capital.  The  results,  therefore,  indicate  that 
20  cows  well  fed,  yet  with  no  attempt  at  forcing, 
would  produce  as  much  milk  as  30  cows,  equally  as 
good,  fed  an  abundance  of  corn  stalks  and  timothy 
hay  and  4  pounds  of  corn  meal  per  day.  If,  then, 
there  is  any  profit  in  producing  milk  from  a  ration 
made  up  largely  of  roughage  of  a  carbonaceous 
character,  on  the  basis  of  this  experiment,  the  profit 
might  be  increased  one-third  by  feeding  a  ration 
containing  a  larger  amount  of  concentrated  feed  and 
properly  balanced  in  respect  to  food  compounds.  It 
has  been  claimed  that,  other  things  being  equal,  a 
small  herd  well  fed  will  prove  more  profitable  than 
a  large  herd  poorly  fed,  and  the  facts  brought  out 
by  this  study  emphasize  the  correctness  of  this 
claim,  and  point  to  the  importance  of  good  feeding, 
in  the  economical  production  of  milk  and  butter. 


PART  V— PRODUCTS 


CHAPTER  I 

YIELD   OF  MILK  AND  COST  OF  PRODUC- 
TION 

ACCORDING  to  the  United  States  census  taken  in 
1900,  the  average  yield  of  milk  per  cow  was  3,646 
pounds,  and  butter  155  pounds.  This  amount  is  too 
low  to  afford  the  dairymen  much  profit.  The  rec- 
ords indicate,  further,  that  many  dairymen  whose 
herds  are  below  the  average  in  production  must  be 
keeping  cows  at  a  loss.  As  a  matter  of  business, 
then,  and  a  condition  essential  to  best  results,  every 
dairyman  should  study  the  individuality  of  his  cows, 
set  a  standard  and  maintain  it  by  promptly  dispos- 
ing of  the  animals  which  fail  to  attain  it,  unless  he 
has  reason  to  believe  that  the  animal  will  make  a 
better  record  in  the  future. 

When  the  standard  is  reached,  it  should  be  gradu- 
ally but  persistently  raised.  This  can  be  done  by 
keeping  a  sufficient  record  of  the  quantity  and  qual- 
ity of  the  milk  product,  knowing  approximately  the 
cost  of  production,  and  systematically  weeding  out 
the  herd.  Six  thousand  pounds  of  4  per  cent,  milk 
per  cow  is  a  paying  yield  in  most  localities,  and 
many  grade  herds  average  much  higher  than  this. 


COST  OF   PRODUCTION  165 

WHAT  IT  COSTS  TO  PRODUCE  MILK 

At  the  New  Jersey  agricultural  college  farm  the 
writer  kept  records  of  a  herd  of  about  40  cows  for 
7  years,  beginning  April  i,  1896.  These  records  in- 
clude the  cost  of  labor,  the  kind,  amount  and  cost 
of  foods  eaten  by  the  dairy  herd  and  the  amount  of 
milk  produced  by  each  cow.  The  cost  for  the  year 
ending  April  i,  1903,  is  here  reported.  The  herd 
averaged  34  cows. 

The   Kind,   Amount  and  Cost  of  Foods  for  Thirty-four 
Cows  for  One  Year,  April  i,  1902,  to  April  i,  1903 

Amount  Fed      Ost 

L»)8.          per  Ton         Total 

Wheat  bran 26,000  $20  40  $265  20 

Dried    grains 35,5oo  1890  33548 

Buckwheat    middlings...  1,500  1400  1050 

Wheat    middlings 3,ooo  2000  3000 

Rice   meal 4,500  20  oo  45  oo 

Gluten  meal 3,ooo  2425  3637 

Cottonseed    meal 5>4OO  29  oo  78  30 

Hominy   meal 3,ooo  2400  3600 


Cost  of  feeds $83685 

Soiling    crops 360,000      $i  60    $28800 

Silage    234.000        2  40      280  80 

Dried   cornstalks 20,000        4  oo        40  oo 

Mixed    hay 16,000        5  oo        40  oo 


Roughage    648  80 


Total  cost  of  food $1,485  65 

Total  cost  of  food $1,485  65 

Cost  per  cow  per  day U-97  cents 

Cost  of  feeds 836  85 

Cost  per  cow  per  day 6.74  cents 

Cost  of  roughage 648  80 

Cost  per  cow  per  day 5.23  cents 

Total  yield  of  milk 98,574  quarts 

Average  per  cow  per  clay 7.94       " 

Cost  of  food  per  quart 1.51  cents 

Cost  of  feed  per  quart .85      " 

Cost  of  roughage  per  quart .66     " 


l66  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

The  cost  of  feeds  represents  what  was  actually 
paid.  The  cost  of  hay,  corn  stalks  and  soiling  crops 
represents  the  actual  cost  of  labor,  seed,  manures, 
and  fertilizers,  the  farm  manures  being  charged  at 
the  rate  of  $1.50  per  ton.  Fifteen  of  the  19  forage 
acres  received  manure  at  the  rate  of  eight  tons  per 
acre. 

The  average  cost  of  the  daily  ration  was  11.97 
cents,  of  which  6.74  cents,  or  56.3  per  cent.,  is  repre- 
sented by  purchased  feeds  and  5.23  or  43.7  per  cent, 
by  the  cost  of  farm  crops.  The  total  cost  of  pro- 
ducing milk,  including  the  cost  of  labor  and  the  in- 
terest on  and  decrease  in  the  value  of  the  herd,  is 
given,  the  latter  item  being  estimated. 

Foods,   as   per   statement $1,485  65 

Labor    $600  oo 

Interest  on  value  herd  at  5  per  cent. ...    68  oo 
Decrease  in  value  herd  at  5  per  cent. .    68  oo 

736  oo 


Total  $2,221  65 

Cost  of  food  per  quart  of  milk 1.51  cents 

Cost  of  labor  and  interest  per  quart  of  milk 75  cents 

Total  cost  per  quart 2.26  cents 

The  average  weight  per  quart  of  milk  as  put  up  in 
bottles  for  delivery  was  2.18  pounds,  hence  the  total 
weight  of  milk,  214,891  pounds,  was  equivalent  to 
98,574  quarts.  The  cost  per  hundred  was,  therefore, 
$1.03.  At  $i  per  hundred,  the  price  received  in 
many  rural  districts,  the  profits  from  the  business, 
if  any,  must  be  found  in  the  manure.  In  the  calcu- 
lation of  the  cost  of  farm  foods  the  manure  was 
charged  at  the  rate  of  $1.50  per  ton.  The  amount 
produced  by  the  herd  during  the  year  was  370  tons. 


COST   OF   PRODUCTION  167 

In  selling  milk  for  $i  per  hundred,  the  receipts  are 
$72.74  less  than  the  expense.  Deducting  this 
amount  from  the  actual  charges  made  for  manure, 
in  the  growing  of  the  crops — $1.50  per  ton — there 
remains  $482.26,  which  represents  the  profits  from 
34  cows,  an  amount  too  small  to  make  the  business 
pay.  In  rural  districts,  however,  where  pasture  is 
abundant,  the  cost  of  feed  would  not  be  as  great  as 
where  soiling  crops  supply  the  entire  ration,  with 
the  exception  of  concentrates. 

At  3^  cents  per  quart,  the  price  that  would  have 
been  received  at  wholesale,  the  receipts  would  have 
amounted  to  $3,450.09.  Deducting  the  cost  of  pur- 
chased feeds,  labor  and  interest  and  decrease  in  the 
value  of  the  herd,  amounting  to  $1,572.85,  we  have  a 
balance  of  $1,877.24,  which  represents  the  value  of 
the  home-grown  crops ;  or,  in  other  words,  at  3^2 
cents  per  quart  for  milk,  the  farm  would  sell  its 
produce  to  the  dairy  at  profitable  prices,  namely, 
$4.62  per  ton  for  soiling  crops,  $6.94  for  silage, 
$14.45  f°r  nay  and  $11.56  for  dried  corn  stover,  a 
gain  over  cost  of  production  of  $3.02  per  ton  for 
soiling  crops,  $4.54  for  silage,  $9.45  for  hay  and  $7.56 
for  dried  corn  stover,  besides  an  additional  gain 
represented  by  370  tons  of  manure. 

Looking  at  the  question  of  profit  from  another 
standpoint,  we  will  assume  that  the  dairyman  per- 
forms the  work  himself.  Deducting,  therefore,  the 
item  of  labor,  which  amounted  to  $600,  from  the 
total  cost  of  production  ($2,221.65),  we  have  a  bal- 
ance of  $1,621.65.  Dividing  this  amount  by  the  total 
pounds  of  milk  produced  (214,891),  we  find  the  cost 


1 68 


THE    BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


per  hundred  to  be  75^  cents.  The  difference,  there- 
fore, between  the  cost  and  selling  price  of  the  milk 
represents  the  dairyman's  profits  when  he  performs 
the  work  himself. 

Assuming  that  the  milk  produced  by  the  above 
34  cows  had  been  sold  for  $i  per  hundred,  a  profit 
of  2.^/2  cents  would  have  been  realized  from  every 
hundred  pounds,  or  a  total  of  $526.48  for  the  year's 
production,  besides  the  additional  gain  represented 
by  the  370  tons  of  manure.  At  3^  cents  per  quart, 
the  profits  would  have  amounted  to  $1,818.44,  be- 
sides the  additional  gain  from  the  manure — a  good 
salary  for  a  dairyman. 

The  average  production  per  year  for  the  7  years 
is  shown  to  be  181,345  pounds,  equivalent  to  83,186 

Average  Cost  of  Producing  Milk  for  Seven  Years 


YEAR 

Number  of  cows 

MILK 
PRODUCED 

T3 

3u 

COST  PER  Cow 
PER  DAY 

COST  PER  QUART  OP 
MILK  OF— 

I 
1 

& 

Average  Y 
per  Cov 

00 

Roughage 

3 

i 

Roughage 

Labor  and 
Interest 

1 

1836 

23 
25 
25 
30 
30 
30 
34 

141,517 
154,758 
172,726 
198,345 
195,875 
191,304 
214,891 

64,916 
70,990 
79,232 
90,984 
89,851 
87,754 
98,574 

6,153 
6,791 
6,911 
6,612 
6,529 
6,377 
6,320 

Cts. 
4.99 

5.06 
6.53 
6.65 
7.30 
7.62 
6.74 

Cts. 
6.61 

6.38 
6.16 
6.58 
5.35 
5.26 
5.23 

Cts. 
11.60 

11.44 
12.69 
13.23 
12.65 

12.88 
11.97 

Cts. 
.646 

.650 
.750 
.800 
.890 
.950 
.850 

Cts. 

.855 

.820 
.710 
.790 
.650 
.660 
.660 

Cts. 
.99 

.92 
.82 
.79 
.80 
.82 
.75 

Cts 
2. 

2. 
2 
2 
2 
2 

. 
1 

1897  

1898 

1899  

1900  

1901   

1902 

Average. 

181,345 

83,186 

6,528 

6.41 

5.94 

12.35 

.791 

.735 

.84 

COST  OF   PRODUCTION  169 

quarts.  The  average  yield  per  cow  was  6,528 
pounds.  The  average  cost  of  food  per  cow  per  day 
was  12.35  cents,  of  which  6.41  cents,  or  51.9  per  cent, 
represents  purchased  feeds  and  5.94  cents,  or  48.1 
per  cent.,  farm  crops.  The  average  cost  per  quart 
of  milk  for  the  7  years,  including  food,  labor  and 
interest  and  decrease  in  the  value  of  the  herd,  is 
shown  to  be  2.37  cents. 

While  the  care  and  feeding  of  dairy  cows  is  of 
very  great  importance,  the  proper  selection  of  ani- 
mals for  the  dairy  is  most  essential  to  success.  We 
must  first  have  a  cow  capable  of  good  dairy  per- 
formance before  we  can  secure  results.  An  illus- 
tration will  serve  to  make  this  clear.  The  accom- 
panying table,  taken  from  Bulletin  29  of  the  Storrs 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  shows  the  cost  of 
keep,  income  and  net  profit  of  the  station  herd  each 
year  for  5  years.  Particular  attention  is  called  to 
column  12,  which  shows  for  a  period  of  5  years  the 
average  net  profit  of  each  cow  in  the  herd,  or  the 
reward  of  management.  From  1899  to  1903  the 
average  total  cost  of  keeping  a  cow  increased  from 
$92.86  to  $94.34,  or  $1.49,  while  the  income  increased 
from  $91.63  to  $106.04  an<3  the  net  profit  per  cow 
from  $1.23  loss  to  $21.69  profit. 

The  author  states  that  "during  the  five  years  cov- 
ered by  these  records  the  variety  and  amount  of  food 
and  the  care  of  the  herd  have  been  much  the  same. 
The  increase  in  the  net  profits  from  $1.23  loss  in 
1899  to  $21.64  profit  in  1903  must  be  attributed  to 
the  selection  of  animals  better  suited  to  dairy  pur- 
poses. The  average  cost  of  animals  added  to  the 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


e» 

Ij 

CO        CM        10        ^-        0» 

CM      co      co      eo      <o 

00 
CM 

vt- 

a 

if 

CO       CO        rH        to       -^ 
«O       00       00       to       O 

i-H         i-H         <M         J>         CO 

05        O        O        0        T-H 
<S^        ^H         T^         r^         T-H 

T-t 

0 

O> 

"*  °  O 

G$        CO        CO       "^        1O 

ft 

o 

|o§ 

§       ^       0       00       00 

iO 

T—  1 

* 

€€> 

ft 

00 

lag 

B|5  "" 

g   §   ^   g   3 

i!  ^   ^   2   ?H 

§1 

O 

5 

- 

H 

t-       <M       ***       O5       CO 

O5       CO       OS       lO       00 

CO       t-       t-       00       OO 

€©• 

t- 

!O 

11 

00       »O       -^       t-       CO 

§0       to       0       ^ 
O5       00       OS       OS 

s 

0 

11 

•i-H       C-       OS       CO       O 
CQ       OO       t-       O       i-t 

to     co     t-     "^     t- 
10     to     -^     to     to 

€& 

CO 

CO 

to 

<<l 

S°|||°I 

to     i>     i>     to     to 

^       CO       ^       CO       ^ 
€^ 

n 

co 

H!« 

§   8   §   §   § 

CO       CO       CO       CO       CO 
CO       CO       CO       CO       CO 
€^ 

§ 

01 

l*| 

O       to       i-(       O       t- 

CO 
O 
1—  t 

\ 

M 

9 

1  i  I  i  i 

, 

SANITARY   METHODS   IN    MILK   PRODUCTION          17! 

herd  since  1899  is  $42.50.  What  change  in  the  sys- 
tem of  feeding  or  caring  for  the  herd  would  have  re- 
sulted in  as  large  an  increase  in  net  profits?  There 
is  no  reason  why  the  results  secured  from  this  herd 
cannot  be  secured  by  the  average  farmer.  It  brings 
us  back  again  to  the  importance  of  using  the  scales 
and  Babcock  test  in  determining  the  unprofitable 
animals  and  then  disposing  of  them  as  soon  as  dis- 
covered. 


CHAPTER  II 

SANITARY    METHODS   IN    MILK   PRODUC- 
TION 

Cows.  In  order  to  produce  clean  milk,  cows 
must  be  carded  daily  and  kept  absolutely  free  from 
loose  hair  and  dirt.  If  the  udder  and  flanks  are 
clipped  this  will  assist  very  materially  in  keeping 
the  animals  clean.  For  the  safety  of  the  milk,  and 
for  the  dairyman's  profit  as  well,  all  cows  should 
be  tuberculin  tested  once  a  year  and  reacting  ani- 
mals removed  from  the  herd.  No  dairyman  can  af- 
ford to  keep  diseased  cows.  Such  diseases  as  garget 
should  be  treated  promptly,  and  if  persistent,  the 
animals  should  be  disposed  of.  These  diseases  con- 
tribute pus  cells  to  the  milk  and  render  it  unfit  for 
consumption.  Feed  clean,  healthy  foods  and  such 
as  will  not  contribute  an  undesirable  flavor  to  the 
milk.  The  water  supply  for  the  cows  should  be 
clean,  fresh,  and  protected  from  possible  contami- 
nation. 


STEPS   IN   THE    PRODUCTION   OF   CLEAN    MILK 

1.  CLIPPING  COWS  4.    WASHING    HANDS    BEFORE    MILKING 

2.  BRUSHING  COWS  5.    MILKING 

3.  WASHING  UDDERS  6.   BOTTLING  MILK        (Continued  on  p   173) 
FROM   BULLETIN    NO.    IO4,   B.    A.   I.,   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

BY   THE   AUTHOR 


7-    SEALING  BOTTLES  10.   DELIVERY  WAGON 

8.    STORAGE  II.    WASHING  BOTTLES 

p.    CASE  OF  MILK  READY  FOR  DELIVERY  12.    STERILIZING  BOTTLES 

FROM    BULLETIN    NO.    104,    B.    A.    I.,    DEPARTMENT    OF   AGRICULTURE, 
BY  THE  AUTHOR 


174 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


Stables.  The  stables  should  be  located  at  a  safe 
distance  from  the  pig  pen,  privy  or  other  source  of 
contamination.  The  best  material  for  the  floor  is 
cement,  considering  its  cheapness,  its  sanitary 
qualities,  and  its  permanency.  Some  object  to  ani- 
mals standing  on  a  cement  floor,  but  where  an  abun- 


FILTHY     STABLE    AND    FILTHY    COWS,     SHOWING     ALSO     THE    TOO 
COMMON    PRACTICE   OF    STRAINING  THE    MILK    IN   THE    STABLE 

dance  of  bedding  is  provided  no  serious  troubles  re- 
sult. However,  if  a  dairyman  prefers  a  tight  plank 
floor,  kept  in  repair,  this  is  good  enough. 

Dirt  floors,  or  floors  constructed  of  loose  stone  or 
brick,  permitting  the  liquid  manure  to  leach  through, 
are  not  sanitary  and  should  be  avoided. 

I  do  not  care  what  kind  of  a  tie  the  dairyman  has, 


SANITARY   METHODS   IN    MILK   PRODUCTION        1 75 

provided  it  is  comfortable.  Some  form  of  the  swing 
stanchion,  however,  is  desirable,  as  it  keeps  the  ani- 
mals in  place  and  keeps  them  cleaner.  Rigid 
stanchions  should  be  avoided.  A  low  down  manger 
is  desirable,  as  it  permits  of  circulation  of  air  and 
easy  cleaning.  This  should  be  constructed  of  cement 


CLEAN  COWS  AND  CLEAN   STABLE 

also.  A  box  stall  should  be  provided  for  isolating 
sick  animals  and  for  use  of  cows  at  calving  time. 
Make  the  side  walls  and  ceiling  tight  and  smooth 
and  keep  them  whitewashed  or  painted.  Care  should 
be  taken  in  constructing  the  stable  to  have  as  few 
corners  and  dust-catching  ledges  as  possible.  See 


176 


THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 


that  the  entire  stable  is  kept  clean  and  free  from 
cobwebs.  Four  square  feet  of  glass  should  be  pro- 
vided for  each  cow,  distributed  as  evenly  as  possible 
throughout  the  stable.  While  the  best  system  of 
ventilation  is  still  a  somewhat  mooted  question, 
whatever  system  is  adopted,  care  should  be  taken  to 
see  that  it  is  effective.  The  King  system,  if  properly 


INTERIOR    OF    A    WELL-LIGHTED    STABLE 

constructed,  will  do  the  work.  The  muslin  curtain 
system,  now  being  used  on  many  dairy  farms,  is  the 
cheapest  and  appears  to  be  fairly  satisfactory.  It 
permits  of  constant  circulation  of  air,  removes  all 
moisture,  and  even  when  the  outside  temperature  is 
several  degrees  below  zero  the  air  in  the  barn  is  not 
uncomfortable.  Two  square  feet  of  muslin  placed  in 
the  stable  in  a  similar  position  to  the  windows,  are 
allowed  for  each  cow.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the 


SANITARY   METHODS   IN    MILK    PRODUCTION        177 

proper  grade  of  muslin  (not  canvas)  is  used.    Two 
grades  better  than  cheese-cloth  has  given  the  best 


A  MODERN  STABLE,  ADMITTING  AN  ABUNDANCE  OF  LIGHT 


VENTILATING   BY   MEANS    OF   THE    MUSLIN   CURTAIN 


178  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

results.  Many  claim  to  secure  efficient  ventilation 
by  means  of  adjustable  windows,  but  this  is  not 
automatic  and  requires  constant  attention  for  good 
results.  At  least  500  cubic  feet  of  air  space  is  de- 
sirable for  each  cow,  even  where  there  is  a  good 
system  of  ventilation.  No  other  animals  should  be 


MANURE   BREEDS    FLIES    AND    CONTAMINATES    THE    MILK 

housed  in  the  same  stable  with  the  cows.  Haul  the 
manure  to  the  field  daily,  or  to  a  protected,  water- 
tight pit  outside  the  barnyard  and  at  a  sufficient  dis- 
tance to  prevent  odors  from  reaching  the  stable. 
Keep  the  stable  yard  clean  and  well  drained. 

Milk  house. — Preferably  this  should  be  a  separate 
building  and  located  at  a  safe  distance  from  all 
sources  of  contamination.  Abundance  of  light  and 
some  system  of  ventilation  should  be  provided.  It 
should  be  equipped  for  heating  water  or  generating 


SANITARY   METHODS   IN    MILK   PRODUCTION        179 

steam.  It  should  also  be  supplied  with  a  cooler, 
proper  pails,  cans  and  strainers,  and  storage  facili- 
ties. It  is  desirable  that  the  milk  house  be  divided 
into  two  sections,  one  for  heating  water  and  clean- 
ing utensils  and  the  other  for  cooling  and  storing 
the  milk.  We  are  considering  now  the  dairyman 


MILK  HOUSE  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  STABLE— A  BAD  PRACTICE 

who  produces  market  milk  rather  than  the  butter 
maker.  The  floor  of  the  milk  house  should  be  con- 
structed of  cement  and  the  walls  and  ceiling  made 
smooth  and  tight  for  ease  in  cleaning.  Provide 
screens  for  doors  and  windows.  It  is  particularly 
important  that  the  water-supply  for  cleaning  should 
be  free  from  all  contamination.  Any  contagious 
disease  can  be  readily  transmitted  through  this  me- 
dium, as  the  milk  comes  in  direct  contact  with  the 


INTERIOR   OF   A    MODERN    DAIRY    HOUSE 


SANITARY    METHODS    IN    MILK    PRODUCTION        l8l 

utensils.  Improper  cleaning  of  utensils  is  often  the 
cause  of  sour  milk.  Soaking  first  in  lukewarm  wa- 
ter, thoroughly  washing  in  boiling  water  contain- 
ing some  cleaning  material,  rinsing  in  clean  hot  water 
and  careful  draining  will  generally  secure  cleanli- 
ness. It  is  better  still,  however,  to  go  a  step  farther 


A  CHEAP  BUT   PRACTICAL    MILK    HOUSE. 
CARED   FOR 


UTENSILS   PROPERLY 


and  sterilize  all  utensils  with  steam.  Pails,  cans, 
strainers,  etc.,  should  be  inverted  in  pure  air,  if  pos- 
sible in  the  sunlight,  on  suitable  racks. 

Milking. — It  goes  without  saying  that  the  milker 
should  be  healthy.  He  should  wear  a  clean  garment, 
wipe  the  udder  and  surrounding  parts  with  a  clean 
moist  cloth  and  milk  with  clean,  dry  hands.  It  is 
desirable  to  use  a  small-top  milk  pail  to  prevent 


1 82 


THE    BUSINESS    OF   DAIRYING 


contamination  of  the  milk  during  milking  as  far  as 
possible. 

Cooling  and  storing. — The  best  plan  is  to  remove 
the  milk  from  the  barn  after  milking  each  cow, 
strain,  and  run  over  a  cooler,  immediately  reducing 
the  temperature  to  at  least  50°  It  is  just  as  impor- 


A   MILK    HOUSE   FOR   THE   SMALL   FARMER 

tant,  also,  that  the  milk  be  stored  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture. Ice  is  the  best  protection  during  transporta- 
tion, but  the  milk  should  at  least  be  protected  with 
a  wet  blanket  in  summer  and  a  dry  one  in  winter. 

The  dairy  score  card. — The  score  card  presented 
herewith  is  used  by  the  Dairy  Division,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  for  rating  dairy 
farms.  It  points  out  ideal  conditions  and  shows 
mathematically  the  proper  weight  to  be  given  to 
each  division  of  dairy  work.  Any  dairyman  can 


SANITARY   METHODS   IN    MILK   PRODUCTION        183 


INTERIOR   OF    CLEAN    STABLE 


FOUR  STYLES  OF  MILK  PAILS.     THE  TWO  AT  THE  RIGHT  KEEP 

OUT   NEARLY  ALL   DUST  AND  DIRT 
(Published  in  Bui.  No.  41.     Hygienic  Laboratory,  Treasury  Dept.) 


184  THE  BUSINESS   OF  DAIRYING 

readily  score  his  own  dairy  by  carefully  following 
the  instructions  accompanying  the  card  and  deter- 
mine how  far  he  has  progressed  in  the  production  of 
clean  milk.  The  Boards  of  Health  in  a  number  of 
the  larger  cities  have  adopted  this  card  as  a  basis  for 
issuing  permits  to  dairymen  and  for  keeping  records 
in  a  concise  form  of  the  conditions  existing  on  the 


DIRTY  MILK  DEPOSITS  A  SEDIMENT  IN  THE 
BOTTOM  OF  THE  BOTTLE 

various  farms  which  supply  the  city  with  milk. 
Some  cities 'not  only  adopt  a  standard  which  every 
dairyman  must  reach,  but  publish  in  their  regular 
reports  the  standing  of  every  dairy.  It  will  be 
readily  seen,  therefore,  where  this  is  the  practice, 
that  it  is  to  the  producer's  advantage  to  have  a 
creditable  rating.  In  some  instances  a  higher  price 


SANITARY  METHODS  IN   MILK  PRODUCTION       185 

is  paid  for  milk  from  the  best  dairies,  resulting  in 
greater  profits,  while  the  dairy  with  a  low  score  is 
obliged  to  sell  its  product  for  i  to  2  cents  per  quart 
less.  The  point  desired  to  emphasize  here  is  that  it 
will  be  to  the  dairyman's  advantage  to  use  modern 
methods  in  the  production  of  milk,  to  secure  the  en- 


TROLLEY  SYSTEM    FOR  CONVEYING   MILK  FROM  THE  STABLE  TO  THE 
MILK    HOUSE 


dorsement  of  the  city  health  officer  in  the  form  of  a 
good  rating  on  the  score  card  mentioned,  and  having 
done  this  he  is  in  a  position  to  make  this  fact  known 
to  his  customers  and  use  it  as  an  aid  in  building  up 
his  business. 

It  will  often  pay  him  to  go  still  farther  than  this 
and  have  his  herd  examined  physically  by  a  compe- 


l86  THE    BUSINESS    OF    DAIRYING 

tent  veterinarian,  and  tuberculin  tested.  He  can 
then  use  the  veterinarian's  endorsement  of  the 
health  of  his  herd  in  addition  to  that  of  the  health 
officer  (which  shows  the  sanitary  conditions),  and 
thus  be  in  a  position  to  sell  milk  of  the  highest  qual- 
ity. 

SANITARY  INSPECTION  OF  DAIRIES 


DAIRY     SCORE     CARD 

Owner  or  lessee  of  farm 

Town State 

Total  No.  of  cows No.  milking 

Quarts  of  milk  produced  daily Product  is 

sold  at  wholesale      retail.    Name  and  address  of  dealer  to  whom 

shipped 

Permit  No Date  of  inspection ,  190 

Score  of  methods multiplied  by  2  = 

Score  of  equipment multiplied  by  1  =  

Total divided  by  3  = 

....  Final  score 


REMARKS- 


(Signed) 

Inspector 


SANITARY  METHODS  IN  MILK  PRODUCTION 


:87 


DETAILED     SCORE 


EQUIPMENT 

SCORE 

METHODS 

SCORE 

Perftct 

Allowed 

Perftct 

Allowed 

cows 

4 
6 

10 
12 

4 

4 

Bedding.          2 

6 
4 

Floor                                        4 

Temperature  of  stable  1 
Protected  yard  1 
ubic  feet  of  space  per  cow  : 
Over  300,  2  ;  over  400,  4  ;  500 
to  1,000,  6  

Walls                                       3 

Ceiling        2 

Ledges                                  1 

Mangers  and  partitions.  .  .    1 
Windows            1 

eed                .                    

Stable  air               

i/ater  

8 
6 
10 

10 

8 
2 

6 

Clean         6 

Removal  of  manure  

4 

Fresh  2 

STABLE 

To  field  or  proper  pit  4 
30  feet  from  stable  2 

2 
6 
10 

14 

20 

8 
10 

Well  drained             ....    3 

Cleanliness  of  stable  yard  

Free  from  contaminating  sur- 
roundings                  3 

Cleanliness  of  milk  room  

Tight,  sound  floor  3 

Care  and  cleanliness  of  utensils. 
Inverted  in  pure  air  2 

Gutter                                       1 

Stall,  stanchion,  tie  1 
Low-down  manger  1 
Smooth   tight  walls  .           1 

Clean  (sterilized)    .  .              8 

Cleanliness  in  milking        .  . 

Smooth,  tight  ceiling  2 
Box  stall                                 1 

Clean,  dry  hands  4 

ight  :  1  sq.  ft.  glass  per  cow, 
2;  2  sq.  ft.,  4;  3  sq.  ft.,  6;  4sq. 
ft.,  8  ;  even  distribution,  2.  . 
entilation  :    Sliding  windows, 
2;  hinged  at  bottom,  4;  King 
1     system  or  muslin  curtain,  8.\ 

Udders  washed  and  dried.  10 
Cleaned  with  moist  cloth.    8 
Cleaned  with  dry  cloth..  .  .    4 

Cooling  

Cooled     immediately     after 
milking  each  cow  10 
Cooled  to  50°  F.  or  below.  10 
51°  to  55°  F  8 

MILK   ROOM 

bcation  

Convenience  2 
Free  from  contaminating  sur- 
roundings       4 

4 
2 

Storing  
Below  50°  F  8 

Floor  1.5 
Walls  and  ceilings  1 
Light  5 

51°  to  55°  F  6 
56°  to  60°  F  4 

Ventilation  5 

Screens                   .        .  .     5 

Iced  ..  10 
Jacket  or  wet  blanket  8 
Dry  blanket  4 

•rangement  

•Hot  water  or  steam  2 
l^ooler  2 

10 
4 

Covered  wagon  2 
Total  

Harrow-top  milk  pail  ....      1 
pther  utensils  1 
later  supply  for  utensils  
iDlean                        .              6 

iCJonvenient                              2 

i|\bundant  2 

|ean  milking  suits  

Total  

100 

100 

i88 


THE   BUSINESS   OF  DAIRYING 


THE  BURRELL-LAWRENCE-KENNEDY   MILKING 
MACHINE 

MILKING  MACHINES 

One  of  the  most  practical  pieces  of  apparatus  that 
have  recently  been  perfected  for  the  use  of  the  dairy 
farmer  is  the  milking  machine.  It  is  particularly 
welcomed  at  this  time  when  labor  is  becoming 
scarce  or  incompetent.  The  wages  paid  for  labor 
have  also  increased  very  materially  during  recent 
years.  Many  farmers  have  become  discouraged,  ow- 
ing to  these  conditions,  and  either  given  up  the 
dairy  business  altogether  or  greatly  reduced  the 


SANITARY   METHODS  IN   MILK  PRODUCTION       189 

size  of  their  herds.  The  innovation  of  the  milking 
machine  has  tended  to  reverse  these  conditions,  and 
the  small  dairyman  is  now  increasing  his  herd,  and 
the  dairyman  who  went  out  of  business  has  returned 
to  it  with  greater  energy  than  ever.  It  is  reported 
that  there  are  3,000  of  the  Burrell-Lawrence-Ken- 


THE   BURRELL-LAWRENCE-KENNEDY    MILKING    MACHINE   IN 
OPERATION 

nedy  machines  alone,  which  are  probably  milking 
daily  25,000  to  30,000  cows.  A  description  of  this 
machine  follows. 


THE  BURRELL-LAWRENCE-KENNEDY 
MILKING  MACHINE 

With  this  machine  the  milk  is  drawn  by  inter- 
mittent suction.  The  suction  may  be  created  by 
either  a  vacuum  pump  or  a  steam  ejector.  Connected 


IQO  THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

with  the  vacuum  pump  is  a  vacuum  reservoir  and 
a  pipe  running  the  whole  length  of  the  cow  stable, 
with  a  connection  valve  or  vacuum  cock  between 
each  pair  of  cows.  A  safety  valve  is  connected  to 
the  reservoir  to  prevent  the  vacuum  from  running 
higher  than  is  desired. 

The  machine  itself  (page  188)  consists  of  a  heavy 
tin  pail,  which  is  cone-shaped  and  holds  about 
55  pounds  of  milk.  The  cover  of  this  pail  is  a  disk, 
in  which  is  a  vacuum  motor  which  produces  the  pul- 
sations in  drawing  the  milk  from  the  teats.  The 
cover  fits  the  pail  tightly  and  excludes  all  air. 

To  operate  the  machine  it  is  placed  between  the 
pair  of  cows  to  be  milked.  A  rubber  tube  connects 
the  pail  top  or  pulsator  with  the  vacuum  cock  above 
the  stanchions.  On  opening  the  cock  the  air  is  drawn 
from  the  pail  and  the  motor  immediately  starts. 
The  degree  of  pressure  maintained  is  about  one-half 
atmosphere,  or  7^2  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Lead- 
ing from  the  pail  cover  or  pulsator  are  two  flexible 
tubes  besides  the  one  leading  to  the  vacuum  cock 
above  the  stanchions.  At  the  end  of  each  tube  are 
4  cups,  which  are  fitted  over  the  teats  of  the  cow. 
The  milk  from  the  2  cows  is  discharged  into  one  pail 
(page  189).  In  operation  the  machine  makes  a 
low,  clicking  sound,  which  is  caused  by  the  motor. 
The  vacuum  pulsations  run  from  50  to  70  per  minute 
and  may  be  easily  adjusted  to  the  speed  required. 
The  milk  in  passing  from  the  cow  to  the  pail  goes 
through  a  glass  inspection  tube,  so  that  the  operator 
may  watch  the  flow.  When  the  milk  ceases  to  flow 
the  suction  is  turned  off  and  the  action  of  the  ma- 


SANITARY  METHODS  IN    MILK  PRODUCTION         IQI 

chine  stops.  Four  different  sizes  of  teat  cups  are 
provided,  so  that  different  sizes  of  teats  may  be 
fitted. 

Cost  of  equipment  for  machine  milking. — At  the 
present  time  the  equipment  required  to  milk  a  herd 
of  40  cows  with  the  machines  and  the  cost  of  the 
same  would  be  as  follows  : 

1.  An  engine  or  some  power  with  which  to  drive 

the  machine.  For  milking  up  to  8  cows  at 
a  time,  a  2-horsepower  gasoline  engine  may  be 
used,  costing  $105  oo 

2.  A  vacuum  pump,  costing 75  oo 

3.  A  vacuum  tank,  like  a  tank  that  is  used  in  con- 

nection with  ranges  or  stoves  in  kitchens, 
costing  II  oo 

4.  The  piping  with  valves,  etc.,  necessary  in  barn, 

depending  upon  extent  of  plant,  number  of 
TVr^ows,  etc..  costing  for  a  42-cow  dairy  about      25  oo 

5.  Four  milking  machines,  costing 300  oo 

Total    516  oo  3 

One  machine  milks  2  cows  at  a  time,  and  it  has 
been  found  practicable  to  allow  one  machine  to 
every  10  or  12  cows  when  equipping  the  herd. 

In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  entire 
cost  of  installing  a  plant  for  herds  of  different  sizes 
would  be  about  as  follows : 

For  a  dairy  of  30  cows,  with  2  machines,  milking 
2  cows  each  or  4  cows  at  one  time,  cost  per 
cow  '. $13  oo 

For  a  dairy  of  40  cows,  with  3  machines,  milking 

6  cows  at  one  time,  cost  per  cow 12  oo 

For  a  dairy  of  60  cows,  with  4  machines,  milking 

8  cows  at  one  time,  cost  per  cow 10  oo 

For  a  dairy  of  75  cows,  with  5  machines,  milking 

10  cows  at  one  time,  cost  per  cow 8  50 

For  a  dairy  of  100  cows,  with  8  machines,  milking 
16  cows  at  one  time,  requiring  about  a  4-horse- 
power  engine  and  a  larger  pump,  cost  per  cow  10  oo 


IQ2  THE   BUSINESS   OF  DAIRYING 

One  good  careful  man  or  woman  can  operate  4 
machines  milking  8  cows  simultaneously,  and  an 
additional  hand  cannot  only  carry  away  the  milk, 
but  assist  in  manipulating  the  cows'  udders.  The 
operating  expense  of  the  machines  is  comparatively 
small. 

Different  kinds  of  power  which  may  be  utilized. 
— The  kind  of  power  employed  to  operate  cow  milk- 
ers is  not  important  provided  it  is  uniform  and  can 
be  depended  upon. 

Dairymen  well  know  that,  in  the  case  of  hand 
milking,  if  they  were  to  stop  for  a  time  when  a  cow 
was  partially  milked  and  then  begin  again  and  finish 
milking,  the  chances  are  that  there  would  not  only 
be  a  decrease  in  yield,  but  the  milk  would  be  of 
poorer  quality.  A  similar  effect  is  produced  in  the 
case  of  machine  milking.  If  the  engine,  or  whatever 
power  is  employed  to  work  the  pumps,  stops  for  any 
cause  during  the  milking,  a  marked  decrease  in  the 
3'ield  of  milk  results. 

Gasoline  engines. — These  are  most  commonly  em- 
ployed for  power  at  the  present  time. 

Electric  motors. — Some  farmers  located  near 
cities  find  electricity  the  most  convenient  power. 
This  has  worked  successfully  on  two  farms  at  least. 
In  one  case  a  trolley  line  passes  near  the  barn  and  a 
wire  is  attached  to  the  main  trolley  wire  and  con- 
nected with  a  one  horsepower  electric  motor  inside 
of  the  building.  As  electric  roads  are  now  being 
rapidly  built  through  country  districts,  it  is  quite 
possible  that  this  may  prove  a  popular  method  of 
securing  power  to  operate  cow  milkers. 


SANITARY   METHODS  IN    MILK  PRODUCTION         IQ3 

Steam  power. — Steam  engines  are  employed  on 
some  farms,  and  they  will  be  found  to  work  satisfac- 
torily in  supplying  power  to  operate  the  milking  ma- 
chines. Where  steam  is  used  on  farms  for  other 
purposes  it  can  be  made  to  run  the  milkers  with  but 
little  extra  expense. 

The  milking  machine  described  has  many  advan- 
tages, one  of  the  most  important  being  the  saving 
of  labor,  as  less  than  one-half  the  help  is  required. 
It  is  necessary  that  the  labor  employed,  however,  be 
of  a  little  higher  class,  and  better  wages  must  be 
paid,  as  the  milking  machine,  like  other  farm  ma- 
chinery, requires  intelligent  operators  to  secure  the 
best  results.  One  man  can  readily  operate  3  or  4 
machines  and  milk  from  25  to  30  cows  an  hour.  Two 
men  with  6  machines  can  milk  60  cows  an  hour.  It 
will  be  readily  seen  that  even  one  man  can  milk  a 
fair  sized  herd,  thus  making  it  possible  for  the  other 
helpers  to  start  with  the  teams  early  in  the  morning 
and  work  them  the  full  day  without  having  to  stop 
to  do  dairy  work.  With  the  milking  machine  the 
dairyman  can  take  charge  of  a  good  sized  herd  with- 
out assistance,  if  he  so  desires,  and  is  then  indepen- 
dent of  labor  difficulties.  Experiments  thus  far  con- 
ducted show  that  in  some  instances  more  milk  is  se- 
cured through  the  use  of  the  machines  and  in  others 
less.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  where  the  ma- 
chines are  properly  handled  fully  as  good  results 
may  be  obtained  with  machine  milking  and  with 
much  less  labor.  It  should  be  stated  that  the  ma- 
chine has  some  objections  and  difficulties.  The  out- 
lay at  the  beginning  may  prove  a  serious  obstacle  to 


194  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

dairymen  of  limited  means.  Others  who  are  finan- 
cially able  to  make  the  investment  will  hesitate  in 
installing  machines  until  their  practical  utility  has 
been  fully  demonstrated.  Another  drawback  is  the 
time  required  to  properly  clean  the  machines.  Un- 
less properly  cleaned,  more  bacteria  may  be  intro- 
duced into  the  milk  than  by  hand  milking,  and  sour- 
ing take  place  quicker.  However,  with  proper  fa- 
cilities for  cleaning  the  results  should  be  better  than 
by  the  old  method. 

Other  machines.* — There  are  several  other  ma- 
chines that  have  been  on  the  market  for  a  shorter 
time  and  their  practical  value  has  not  yet  been  dem- 
onstrated. No  machine  will  prove  practical  which 
cannot  be  sterilized  in  all  its  parts  and  is  not  adapted 
to  the  use  of  the  ordinary  dairyman. 


CHAPTER  III 

WINTER  DAIRYING  TOO  MUCH  NEG- 
LECTED 

IT  is  the  practice  with  many  dairymen  to  milk 
their  cows  in  summer  and  let  them  go  dry  in  winter. 
They  seem  to  think  that  winter  is  the  time  for  the 
cows  to  "rest,"  and  themselves  as  well.  Many,  also, 
make  the  claim  that  feed-stuffs  are  too  expensive. 
This  is  all  wrong.  With  the  silo  as  an  aid,  milk  can 
be  produced  on  thousands  of  our  farms  as  cheap  in 
winter  as  in  summer,  and  prices  for  this  product  are 

*See  Bulletin  No.  92,  B.  A.  I.,  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


WINTER  DAIRYING  TOO  MUCH  NEGLECTED          IQ5 

very  much  higher  in  winter.  With  all-the-year- 
round  dairying,  too,  the  hired  help  is  kept  continu- 
ously employed  and  there  is  more  time  to  devote  to 
the  care  and  feeding  of  the  herd,  there  are  no  flies 
to  annoy  the  animals  and  the  food  supply  can  be 
depended  upon.  Considering  all  these  points  we  see 
that  winter  dairying  has  many  advantages  over 
summer  feeding.  Go  to  the  creameries  through  the 
country  and  look  up  the  patrons  who  supply  a  uni- 
form quantity  of  milk  month  after  month  through 
the  year  and  you  will  find  that  it  is  the  all-the-year- 
round  dairyman  that  has  the  biggest  checks  and  is 
the  most  prosperous. 

The  principal  reason  for  failures  in  winter  dairy- 
ing is  lack  of  business  methods.  To  illustrate :  A 
farmer  let  his  cows  run  out  in  the  corn  field  in  cold 
bleak  weather  and  the  stable  was  not  much  warmer 
than  the  open  fields.  When  asked  why  he  did  not 
build  a  warm  stable  he  said  that  lumber  was  too  ex- 
pensive and  the  price  of  milk  too  low.  Yet  this 
same  farmer  drove  two  miles  every  day  with  20 
quarts  of  milk,  and  could  give  no  reasonable  excuse 
for  doing  so.  This  man  had  enough  cows  on  his 
farm,  and  had  he  taken  good  care  of  them  and  fed 
them  properly  he  could  have  delivered  100  to  125 
quarts  of  milk  daily.  He  was  feeding  12  to  14  cows 
and  they  were  all  dry  with  the  exception  of  three, 
and  they  were  strippers.  This,  too,  was  in  the  mid- 
dle of  December,  when  the  milk  shippers  were  bid- 
ding $1.40  per  hundred  weight  at  the  railroad  sta- 
tion where  the  farmers  delivered  their  milk.  He  had 
no  milk  to  deliver  at  the  time  when  milk  should 


196  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

bring  a  profitable  price.  His  cows  were  fresh  on 
grass  and  stayed  fresh  for  perhaps  six  months,  when 
the  price  of  milk  was  lowest.  Then  when  winter 
came  his  cows  were  poorly  housed,  given  poor  feed 
and  practically  no  attention.  What  this  man  needed 
was  better  business  methods  rather  than  a  higher 
price  for  his  product. 

Second  illustration  :  The  following  description  of 
methods  practiced  by  another  dairyman  in  the  same 
State  is  directly  opposite  from  the  above,  and  shows 
good  business  methods.  This  man  had  been  ship- 
ping for  several  years  practically  as  much  milk  in 
December  as  when  his  cows  were  on  grass.  He  fed 
his  cows  plenty  of  good  milk-producing  feeds  with 
the  belief  that  in  order  to  get  good  results  out  of 
them  he  had  to  feed  results  into  them.  He  was  a 
dairyman  every  month  in  the  year.  He  was  ship- 
ping eight  to  nine  cans  (8  gallon)  of  milk  per  day, 
from  22  cows,  and  his  milk  check  for  the  month  of 
December  was  $316.  He  was  feeding  a  ration  of 
hominy  feed  and  dried  brewers'  grains,  with 
shredded  corn  fodder  and  clover  hay  for  roughage, 
and  was  giving  them  all  they  would  eat  up  clean 
with  a  relish. 


PART   VI— SALES 

CHAPTER  I 

BUSINESS  METHODS  IN  RETAILING  MILK 

THE  problems  and  difficulties  which  attend  the 
retailing  of  milk  are  numerous,  and  yet  if  the  work 
is  conducted  on  a  strictly  business  basis  the  retailer 
will,  as  a  rule,  secure  his  share  of  the  profits. 

Handling  the  milk. — At  the  present  time  the  glass 
bottle  is  the  best  style  of  package  for  use  in  deliver- 
ing milk.  While  it  has  some  disadvantage  over  the 
so-called  dippage  system,  such  as  extra  weight  on 
the  wagon,  extra  work  of  cleaning,  and  breakage  and 
loss  of  bottles  (which  amounts  to  about  10  cents  a 
day  for  each  100  used),  the  decrease  in  waste  and 
better  sanitary  condition  of  the  milk  when  delivered 
(experiments  have  shown  that  milk  dipped  in  city 
streets  contains  three  times  as  many  bacteria  as 
the  same  milk  handled  in  bottles)  more  than  offsets 
the  extra  cost.  There  is  good  prospect  in  the  near 
future  for  a  still  better  package  for  use  in  delivery 
of  milk  in  the  paper  pulp  milk  bottle.  The  advan- 
tages of  such  a  bottle  are  very  evident,  as  it  is 
simply  used  once  and  thrown  away.  The  principal 
saving  will  be  in  the  lighter  weight  on  the 
delivery  wagon  and  in  the  expense  of  handling 


BUSINESS   METHODS  IN   RETAILING   MILK 

and  washing  the  thousands  of  bottles  which  re- 
quire so  much  labor  and  expensive  equipment  in 
our  milk  plants  at  the  present  time.  Several  styles 
have  already  been  manufactured  and  appear  to  be 
practical ;  the  only  questions  remaining  to  be  solved 
appear  to  be  the  cost  of  the  bottle  and  the  attitude 
of  the  consumer  to  this  innovation. 

Losses  due  to  waste  in  handling. — It  has  been  my 
experience  that  the  profits  are  affected  in  no  small 
degree  by  the  attention  given  to  the  loss  of  milk 
during  the  processes  of  cooling  and  bottling,  and 
particularly  in  delivery  where  the  dippage  method 
is  practised.  Hence  the  importance  of  having  a  care- 
ful man  to  do  this  work.  The  following  tabulation 
illustrates  this.  About  250  quarts  were  handled  daily. 


1897  

Waste  in 
Handling,  Cooling 
and  Bottling. 
Per  Cent. 
C  7 

Waste  in 
Delivery  or 
Dippage. 
Per  Cent. 
e  I 

Total 
Waste. 
Per 
Cent. 

10  8 

1898  

4  O 

o  ^ 

1899  

48 

2  O 

y-o 
6  o 

1900  

4.7 

1.7 

6.4 

1901  

3-8 

1.7 

c.c 

IQO2.  ..... 

8 

I  2 

2  O 

1903.  . 

.16 

.16 

During  the  years  1897  and  1898  about  50  per  cent, 
of  the  milk  was  bottled,  so  that  the  actual  loss  due 
to  dippage  was  practically  10  per  cent,  of  the  amount 
handled  in  cans.  For  the  last  five  years  the  pro- 
portion of  milk  delivered  in  bottles  was  gradually 
increased — in  fact,  from  July  i,  1902,  practically  all 
of  the  milk  was  delivered  in  bottles.  The  waste 
in  delivery  and  dippage  the  last  year  amounted  to 
practically  nothing  more  than  an  occasional  broken 


200  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

bottle.  The  tabulation  also  shows  that  there  was  a 
decrease  from  year  to  year  in  the  percentage  of 
waste  in  handling,  cooling  and  bottling.  This  is 
due  largely  to  improved  apparatus  and  greater  care 
in  handling  the  product. 

CHAPTER  II 
DAIRY  ACCOUNTS— DAILY  RECORD 

IT  is  important  that  the  dairyman  have  proper 
forms  for  his  accounts,  not  only  that  he  may  save 
time  but  that  he  may  always  have  the  statements 
up  to  date,  make  out  bills  regularly,  etc.  The  sys- 
tem used  for  such  records  should  be  simple  and 
plain  and  show  at  any  time  each  customer's  in- 
debtedness. The  following  sheet  from  a  driver's 
account  book  illustrates  a  system  which  has  proved 
practicable  for  the  daily  record. 

In  connection  with  this  daily  record,  the  driver 
enters  on  the  back  of  the  envelope  shown  herewith 
the  amount  of  milk  and  cream  taken,  delivered,  re- 
turned and  wasted,  the  size  of  package,  whether 
quarts,  pints  or  half-pints,  and  the  total  cash  re- 
ceived, from  credit  customers  (those  who  were  ren- 
dered monthly  bills),  cash  customers  and  the  sale 
of  tickets.  He  places  the  cash  in  the  envelope,  seals 
it  and  turns  it  over  daily  to  the  farm  superintendent, 
who  enters  the  accounts  in  an  ordinary  cash  book 
and  ledger. 

The  milk  and  cream  may  be  checked  out  to  the 
driver  every  day  or  only  occasionally  to  keep  tab  on 
his  records. 


DAIRY  ACCOUNTS — DAILY  RECORD 


Use  of  tickets. — Where  tickets  are  used  they 
should  be  handled  but  once  and  destroyed,  thus 
eliminating  the  danger  of  carrying  disease  from  one 


DRIVER  

DRIVER 

len's  Account 

The  New  Jersey  College  Farm  Milkn 

for  the  Month  of.  J90 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

& 

9 

10 

it 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

24 

3031 

.  .  /?  / 

nilfv(t> 

<i.a.Jh*jL 

fttri. 

(7 

tjSSEfc 

TICKETS 

CASH 

I'iffD 

/!$3 

ricurrs 

CASH 

i!.LvKto 

m 

ICKTW 

CASH 

?I$D 

ICKETS 

CASH 

s$m> 

ItttTS 

CASH 

SI&ED 

c?mS 

KKETS 

CASH 

family  to  another.  With  the  style  of  tickets  now 
in  common  use,  they  are  handled  by  all  kinds  of 
people,  sick  or  well,  kept  in  dirty  kitchen  drawers 
and  other  insanitary  places  and  become  a  dangerous 
source  of  filth  and  disease.  The  expense  of  printing 
tickets  on  cheap  paper  is  very  slight.  It  is  conven- 
ient to  have  pads  printed  containing  a  dollar's  worth 
each. 


202 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


THE  COLLEGE  FARM 

REPORT  OF  MILK  SALES  AND  COLLECTIONS 


Driver- 
Date — 


MILK 

CREAM 

Quarts 

Pints 

Whole- 
sale 

Quarts 

Pints 

Half 
Pints 

Taken  

Returned  

Delivered  

Waste  

Total  Delivered  

Total  as  Quarts  

I 

50TTLE 

3 

SKIM  MILK 

Quarts 

Pints 

Half 
Pints 

Qt.s    tnkpn 

Taken  

Returned  

Shortage  

Total, 

Gain  

Cash  Customers 

Cash  Customers — Tickets. 

Credit  Customers , 

Total. . 


DAIRY  ACCOUNTS — DAILY  RECORD 


203 


FAT 

% 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

73 

2 

52 

/ 

/ 
/ 

^ 

5,0 

4 

\ 
\.'* 

/ 
/ 
/ 

\ 
\ 

/ 
/ 

i 
i 
i 

/ 
/ 
i 

4.8 

\ 
\ 

\ 
i 

/ 
/ 

\ 
\ 

/ 
/ 
/ 

\ 

/ 
/ 

1 
1 
l 

/ 
i 
l 

4.6 

\ 
\ 
\ 

\ 
I 

/ 
/ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

1 
\ 
\ 

/ 
i 
/ 

4.4 

\ 
\i 

~\ 

\ 

/ 

\x 
r\ 

\ 

/' 

\ 

\ 
\ 

1 
i 

i 

/ 

4.2 

1 

7\ 

\ 

\  I 

H 

\ 

/ 

/' 

\ 
\j 

\ 

> 
/\ 

£ 

/ 
I/ 

4.0 

3 

\ 
\ 

\ 

l 
/ 

\^ 
\ 

/ 
/ 

\    ^ 
\  / 

5 

\   \ 

1      - 

'     / 
/ 

/ 

3.8 

5 

""  [ 
\     \ 
\     \ 

\ 

/ 
i 
>j 

i 

\  / 
Y 
/\ 

\ 

): 
i\ 

/ 

\\ 

1 

''// 

\ 

3.6 

\     \ 

\ 
\ 

\ 

/ 

,' 

1 

V^ 
\ 

/' 

^ 

I 

x 

3.4 

\ 

\ 
\ 
\ 

/ 
/ 

\i 

/ 

\ 
\ 

/ 

3.2 

\ 

,    \ 
\    \ 

/ 

/ 

i  \ 

/ 

\ 
\ 

( 
/ 

3.0 

\  \ 

V 

/ 

!  \ 

/ 
/ 

2.8 

\ 

/ 

The  columns  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  indicate  the  weeks  during  which  the 
experiment  was  continued,  and  the  column  at  the  left  of  the  dia- 
gram shows  the  per  cent,  of  butter  fat  for  the  weeks  during  which 
the  experiment  was  conducted.  The  figures  on  the  right  show  the 
number  of  dealers.  No.  1  represents  the  composition  of  the  milk 
from  a  herd  in  charge  of  the  author  during  the  period  of  thirteen 
weeks. 


204  THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

Lack  of  uniformity  in  the  composition  of  milk.— 
Many  dairymen  make  the  mistake  of  selling  milk 
varying  greatly  in  quality  from  day  to  day.  They 
do  not  seem  to  appreciate  the  fact  that  consumers 
desire  and  look  for  a  uniform  amount  of  cream,  and 
when  they  do  not  find  it  they  accuse  the  dairyman 
of  some  crooked  work,  which  may  be  simply  poor 
business  methods  in  handling  the  milk.  Many  cus- 
tomers change  their  milkman  for  no  other  reason 
than  this,  and  he  is  left  to  wonder  why  his  business 
does  not  increase.  To  illustrate :  I  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  study  the  variation  in  the  butter  fat  con- 
tent in  the  milk  actually  delivered  to  consumers  by 
five  retail  dealers  in  a  certain  city  for  a  period  of 
13  weeks,  the  results  of  which  are  shown  graphi- 
cally in  the  accompanying  illustration. 

WHAT  PRODUCT  IS  MOST  PROFITABLE 
FOR  THE  DAIRY  FARMER? 

It  is  often  a  problem  with  the  farmer  what  prod- 
uct he  can  best  afford  to  sell.  That  is,  will  it  be 
more  profitable  to  sell  whole  milk  or  can  he  better 
afford  to  sell  cream  or  butter?  This,  of  course,  will 
depend  largely  upon  the  price  that  each  product  can 
command.  Even  with  the  prices  before  the  dairy- 
man, it  is  not  always  easy  for  him  to  decide  which 
product  will  pay  him  best,  as  there  is  some  differ- 
ence in  the  freight  or  express  charges  on  the  differ- 
ent products,  and  in  case  cream  is  sold,  the  skim 
milk  is  left  for  feeding  purposes,  and  where  butter 
is  sold,  the  buttermilk  has  a  value  for  feeding;  at 


DAIRY  ACCOUNTS — DAILY  RECORD 


205 


the  same  time,  there  is  some  labor  attached  to  mak- 
ing butter. 

The  following  table  has  been  prepared  to  aid  the 
dairyman  to  decide  in  what  form  he  can  best  sell 
the  products  of  his  dairy. 

PRICES   OF  MILK,  CREAM,  BUTTERFAT  AND 
BUTTER  COMPARED 


MILK 

VALUE 

,*, 

Price 
per 
Gallon 

20*  Cream 
per  Gallon 

25$  Cream 
per  Gallon 

30*  Cream 
per  Gallon 

Butter  fat 
per  Lb. 

Butter 
per  Lb. 

10 

.41 

.49 

.58 

25.5 

18.0 

12 

.52 

.63 

.75 

32.0 

23.5 

14 

.63 

.76 

.92 

39.0 

29.0 

3.5    .... 

16 

.74 

.90 

1.00 

46.0 

35.0 

18 

.85 

1.04 

1.26 

53.0 

41.0 

20 

.96 

1.28 

1.43 

60.0 

47.0 

10 

.34 

.42 

.50 

23.0 

16.0 

12 

.44 

.54 

.65 

29.0 

21.0 

14 

.54 

.66 

.79 

35.0 

26.0 

4.0    

16 

.63 

.78 

.93 

41.0 

31.0 

18 

.73 

.90 

1.08 

47.0 

36.0 

20 

.83 

1.02 

1.22 

53.0 

41.0 

10 

.30 

.36 

.43 

21.0 

14.0 

12 

.39 

.47 

.56 

26.0 

18.5 

14 

.48 

.57 

.60 

31.0 

23.0 

4.5   .... 

16 

.57 

.67 

.82 

36.0 

28.0 

18 

.66 

.77 

.95 

41.0 

33.0 

20 

.75 

.87 

1.08 

46.0 

38.0 

10 

.27 

.33 

.38 

19.0 

12.5 

12 

.34 

.42 

.50 

240 

16.5 

5A 

14 

.43 

.52 

.62 

29.0 

20.5 

.  u   .  .  •  • 

16 

.51 

.62 

.74 

34.0 

24.5 

18 

.50 

.72 

.81 

39.0 

28.5 

20 

.67 

.82 

.98 

44.0 

32.5 

It  should  be  stated  in  explanation  of  the  above 
table  that  milk  is  taken  as  the  basis  for  making  the 
comparison  in  prices.  For  example,  in  the  second 
line  where  milk  containing  3.5  per  cent,  fat  sells  for 
12  cents  per  gallon,  cream  containing  20  per  cent. 


206'  THE   BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

fat  should  bring  52  cents  per  gallon ;  25  per  cent,  fat 
63  cents,  and  30  per  cent,  fat,  75  cents  per  gallon. 

The  creamery  should  pay  32  cents  per  pound  for 
butter  fat,  and  butter  should  sell'  for  23.5  cents. 
Values  have  also  been  worked  out  for  milk  contain- 
ing 4,  4.5  and  5  per  cent,  fat,  when  sold  for  differ- 
ent prices  per  gallon.  By  glancing  at  this  table, 
the  dairyman  should  be  able  to  tell  how  he  can  dis- 
pose of  his  milk  most  profitably.  Minimum  and 
maximum  prices  ordinarily  received  for  milk  at 
wholesale  are  given,  and  if  higher  or  lower  prices 
are  received,  it  will  be  easy  to  make  computations 
from  the  figures  presented.  In  making  these  com- 
putations, skim  milk  and  buttermilk  have  been  val- 
ued at  20  cents  per  hundred.  The  freight  on  milk 
has  been  figured  at  2  cents  per  gallon  and  cream 
3  cents,  as  these  are  the  charges  commonly  made 
within  a  radius  of  50  miles  of  the  larger  cities.  No 
allowance  has  been  made  for  hauling.  As  this  va- 
ries greatly  under  different  conditions,  each  farmer 
can  best  calculate  it  for  himself.  There  would  be 
but  little  difference  in  the  charge  for  hauling  to  the 
creamery  or  shipping  station,  and  where  butter  is 
made,  the  labor  will  usually  be  equal  to  that  of  haul- 
ing the  whole  milk. 

The  difference  in  the  amount  of  fertility  sold  in 
milk,  cream  or  butter  (see  page  18)  also  has  a  bear- 
ing upon  this  question  of  comparative  prices. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  dealer  No.  2,  for  instance, 
delivered  milk  the  first  week  containing  7.3  per  cent, 
of  fat,  the  second  week  it  dropped  to  3.8,  and  the 
third  week  to  nearly  3;  the  fourth  week  the  same  as 


DAIRY  ACCOUNTS — DAILY  RECORD  207 

the  third,  it  increased  again  the  fifth  week  to  4.6,  and 
continued  with  similar  extreme  variations  through- 
out the  13  weeks,  as  shown  in  the  diagram.  Others 
also  showed  a  similar  lack  of  uniformity.  These  re- 
sults indicate  either  carelessness  in  preparing  milk 
for  delivery,  that  is,  delivery  to  the  consumer;  rich 
milk  from  certain  animals  in  the  herd  one  day  and 
poor  milk  from  other  animals  the  next,  or  careless- 
ness in  dipping  the  milk,  the  first  customer  receiv- 
ing milk  from  the  top  of  the  can  and  the  last  from 
the  bottom.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  uniformity 
was  affected  by  both  these  causes,  and  shows  the 
importance  of  properly  mixing  the  herd  milk,  also 
of  delivering  milk  in  bottles,  insuring  each  customer 
a  uniform  product  from  day  to  day. 

Is  it  possible  to  have  a  uniform  product?  The 
author's  experience  with  a  herd  of  25  to  30  milking 
cows  has  a  bearing  upon  this  subject.  The  accom- 
panying tabulation  gives  the  average  per  cent,  of  fat 
in  the  mixed  milk  from  this  herd  as  well  as  the 
maximum  and  minimum  of  the  individual  cows,  the 
number  of  fresh  cows  introduced  into  the  herd,  and 
the  number  of  cows  milking  during  the  month.  The 
fresh  cows  were  introduced  when  necessary  to  sup- 
ply a  uniform  quantity  of  milk  from  day  to  day 
rather  than  for  the  direct  purpose  of  regulating  the 
composition.  Corresponding  results  may  be  ex- 
pected from  any  similar  herd  under  good  conditions 
of  feeding  and  management.  The  tabulation  shows 
that  the  milk  of  individual  animals  varied  in  com- 
position from  month  to  month,  but  such  variation 
did  not  materially  affect  the  average  composition  of 


208 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


the  daily  product  of  the  herd,  that  is,  the  per  cent, 
of  fat  in  the  mixed  milk  of  all  the  animals  was  not 
low  one  day  and  high  the  next. 

THE    AVERAGE    MONTHLY     COMPOSITION    OF 

HERD    MILK    AND    THE    VARIATION    IN 

THE    COMPOSITION    OF    THAT    OF 

INDIVIDUAL  COWS 


MONTH 

Average 
Per  Cent,  of 
Fat  in 
Mixed  Milk 

Minimum 
Per  Cent,  of 
Fat  of  Indi- 
vidual Cows 

Maximum 
Per  Cent,  of 
Fat  of  Indi- 
vidual Cows 

Number  of 
Cows 
.  Milking 

Number  of 
Fresh  Cows 
Introduced 
during  the 
Month 

May 

2 

3.6 

6  3 

18 

1 

June 

3 

3  7 

6.5 

20 

2 

July 

3 

3  5 

6  1 

19 

2 

August 

4 

3  4 

5  9 

20 

1 

September 

3 

2  6 

6  8 

23 

4 

October 

4 

2  9 

7  4 

24 

2 

November 

2 

2  5 

7  6 

22 

1 

December 

2 

2  6 

8  3 

18 

January 

3 

2  8 

8  0 

22 

3 

February 

1 

3  1 

6  6 

22 

2 

March 

o 

3  1 

6.6 

25 

4 

April 

1 

3  0 

7  1 

26 

2 

It  will  be  observed  that  although  a  wide  variation 
exists  in  the  fat  content  of  the  milk  of  individual 
animals,  ranging  from  2.6  to  8.3  per  cent,  in  the 
month  of  December,  the  composition  of  the  entire 
daily  product  is  remarkably  uniform — 4  per  cent,  of 
fat  could  have  been  safely  guaranteed  throughout 
the  year.  The  lowest,  4  per  cent.,  is  found  in  the 
month  of  March,  1897,  and  the  highest,  4.4  per  cent., 
in  August  and  October,  1896,  or  a  range  of  .4  per 
cent,  between  highest  and  lowest,  a  difference  so 
slight  from  month  to  month  as  not  to  materially 


DAIRY  ACCOUNTS — DAILY  RECORD       2OQ 

affect  either  the  producer  or  the  consumer.  In, 
other  words,  it  appears  from  the  study  of  this  herd, 
which  is  fairly  representative,  that  so  far  as  uni- 
formity of  composition  of  the  daily  mixed  milk  is 
concerned,  its  sale  on  the  fat  basis  would  have  been 
entirely  practicable. 

It  was  also  found  that  it  was  not  even  necessary 
to  mix  the  milk  of  the  whole  herd.  With  care  in 
arranging  the  animals  in  the  barn  so  that  the  milk- 
ing might  take  a  certain  order,  it  was  possible  to 
furnish  from  day  to  day  a  product  that  was  prac- 
tically uniform  in  composition. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  different  animals 
showed  a  wide  difference  in  the  composition  of  their 
product,  due  to  individuality,  breed,  feed,  and  period 
of  lactation,  it  was  entirely  practicable  to  furnish  a 
product  that  did  not  vary  one-half  per  cent,  in  the 
content  of  butter  fat. 


THE  QUART  BASIS  OF  SELLING  MILK  UN- 
FAIR TO  PRODUCER  AND  CONSUMER 

The  value  of  milk  for  butter-making  depends 
upon  its  content  of  butter  fat.  The  value  of  this 
product  as  market  milk  also  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  butter  fat  it  contains  and  should  be  sold 
on  this  basis,  but  is  commonly  sold  on  the  quart 
basis.  The  dairyman,  therefore,  who  is  producing 
milk  richer  than  the  average  is  not  receiving  his 
share  of  profits  for  the  reason  that,  as  a  rule,  it  costs 
more  to  produce  rich  milk  than  poor  milk.  To  il- 


2IO  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

lustrate :  One  cow  in  a  dairy  herd  produced  2,000 
quarts  of  milk  in  one  year  which  contained  an  aver- 
age of  6.4  per  cent,  of  fat,  while  another  cow  under 
the  same  conditions  of  feed  produced  the  same 
period  3,200  quarts  containing,  on  the  average,  4  per 
cent,  of  fat.  At  3  cents  per  quart  the  value  of  the 
product  from  the  first  cow  was  $60,  while  that  from 
the  last  named  cow  was  worth  $96,  or  a  difference 
between  the  two  of  $36.  Any  improvements  or 
economy  in  feeding  could  not  make  up  for  the  differ- 
ence in  the  returns  from  the  product  of  these  two 
animals  on  the  quart  basis  of  sale.  If,  however,  the 
product  of  the  2,000  quart  cow  had  been  sold  on  the 
basis  of  its  fat  content,  or  converted  into  its  equiva- 
ent  of  4  per  cent,  milk,  it  would  have  been  worth 
exactly  the  same  as  that  of  the  3,200  quart  cow. 
This  is  one  instance  where  the  method  of  sale  is 
more  important  than  making  efforts  to  reduce  the 
cost  of  production. 

To  again  illustrate  the  unfairness  of  the  method, 
farmers  who  sold  milk  containing  a  high  per  cent, 
of  fat  to  creameries  when  the  quart  basis  was  prac- 
ticed, were  practically  making  it  possible  for  their 
neighbors  to  make  a  profit  who  produced  milk  con- 
taining a  low  per  cent,  of  fat.  The  farmer  produc- 
ing rich  milk,  therefore,  although  he  might  have 
studied  closely  the  cost  of  production,  was  unable 
to  realize  a  profit.  When  the  method  was  changed 
and  the  milk  was  sold  on  the  fat  basis,  the  rich-milk 
farmers  made  a  good  profit  while  the  others  were 
obliged  to  obtain  better  animals  or  go  out  of  busi- 
ness. A  few  creameries  are  Still  buying  milk  on  the 


DAIRY  ACCOUNTS — DAILY  RECORD  211 

same  old  basis.  These  same  considerations  apply,  in 
a  large  measure,  to  the  sale  of  market  milk,  because 
the  cost  of  production  per  quart  is,  as  a  rule,  less  for 
that  of  a  low  quality  than  of  a  high  one.  It  is  evi- 
dent, therefore,  that  those  who  produce  higher  cost 
products  of  a  better  quality  are  not  receiving,  on  the 
quart  basis,  a  price  proportionate  to  its  value.  An 
investigation  of  the  character  of  the  milk  as  now 
sold,  made  by  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station 
in  1896,  clearly  showed  the  lack  of  uniformity  in  the 
quality  of  milk  offered  for  sale,  and  the  great  injus- 
tice of  the  present  method.  In  this  study  108  sam- 
ples were  taken  from  the  delivery  wagons  of  repre- 
sentative dealers  in  four  large  cities.  The  examina- 
tion showed  a  range  in  content  of  butter  fat  of  from 
2.56  to  7.76  per  cent.,  and  therefore  in  selling  at  a 
uniform  price  on  the  quart  basis  (this  milk  all  sold 
for  8  cents),  those  having  the  highest  grade  received 
less  than  it  was  worth  and  those  the  lowest  more 
than  it  was  worth.  Or,  assuming  that  the  low  grade 
was  worth  the  price  charged,  those  having  the  high 
grade  received  but  $i  for  milk  that  was  actually 
worth  $1.38.  The  fact  was  also  brought  out  that  if 
milk  containing  4  per  cent,  of  fat  is  worth  8  cents 
per  quart,  milk  containing  3.50  would,  on  the  same 
basis,  be  worth  7  cents  per  quart;  and  3  per  cent, 
milk  only  6  cents  per  quart,  while  milk  containing 
4.50  per  cent,  fat  would  be  worth  9  cents  per  quart, 
and  5  per  cent,  milk  10  cents  per  quart.  If  the  fat 
content  were  adopted  as  a  basis  of  sale  the  con- 
sumer would  be  protected  in  the  sense  that  he 
would  receive  just  what  he  paid  for,  and  the  producer 


212  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

of  a  high  quality  product  would  have  the  advantage 
of  a  higher  price,  which  fairly  belongs  to  him  be- 
cause of  the  greater  cost  of  producing  milk  of  a 
better  quality.  A  few  dairymen  are  already  prac- 
ticing this  method  with  success,  the  percentage  of 
fat  in  the  milk  being  stamped  on  the  milk  cap  and 
the  system  should  be  encouraged  for  the  benefit  of 
both  producer  and  consumer. 

Lack  of  uniformity  in  the  sanitary  qualities  of 
milk. — It  is  only  until  recently  that  much  attention 
has  been  given  to  the  sanitary  quality  of  milk.  City 
Boards  of  Health  have  given  their  attention  largely 
to  chemical  standards  for  milk,  and  examinations 
have  been  made  chiefly  for  content  of  fat  and  total 
solids  and  for  adulteration  and  preservatives.  At 
the  present  time  more  attention  is  being  given  to 
the  sanitary  conditions  at  the  farms,  to  the  health 
of  the  cows,  and  to  the  cleanliness  of  the  milk  when 
delivered  to  the  consumer.  Now,  in  addition  to  ask- 
ing the  question,  "Is  the  milk  reasonably  rich  and 
free  from  adulterations?"  the  Board  of  Health  asks, 
"Is  the  milk  clean?" 

The  standards  used  for  judging  milk  on  the  sani- 
tary basis  include  bacteria  (the  number  allowed 
ranging,  in  different  cities,  from  100,000  to  5O°>OO° 
per  c.c.)  ;  temperature  of  the  milk  (which  is  re- 
quired in  some  instances  to  be  50°  F.  or  below  when 
entering  the  city)  ;  and  the  dairy  score  card  already 
referred  to. 

Education  of  the  public. — The  grading  of  milk  on 
the  basis  of  its  chemical  and  sanitary  qualities  is  of 
little  value  to  the  dairyman  unless  the  general  pub- 


ADVERTISING  213 

lie  demands  a  good  product  and  is  willing  to  pay 
for  it.  Until  very  recently  "milk  was  milk"  whether 
produced  under  good  or  bad  conditions,  and  the 
cheapest  product  has  generally  been  sought.  The 
fact  has  not  been  appreciated  that  the  price  of  feed- 
ing stuffs  and  labor  have  been  constantly  increasing 
during  the  past  10  years,  while  the  price  of  milk  to 
the  consumer  has  scarcely  changed  at  all.  It  has 
been  stated  elsewhere  that  it  cost  more  to  produce 
rich  milk  than  poor  milk,  and  it  is  equally  true  that 
it  costs  more  to  produce  clean  milk  than  dirty  milk. 
There  is  no  use  in  legislating  for  the  production  of 
a  quality  of  product  that  the  people  do  not  want. 
There  is  a  general  movement  throughout  the  coun- 
try for  cleaner  milk  and  better  foods  in  general.  The 
dairy  farmer,  then,  who  practices  good  business 
methods  and  is  awake  to  this  situation  should  put 
himself  in  a  position  to  meet  the  demands  for  better 
milk,  which  is  constantly  increasing.  This  is  clearly 
shown  in  the  increased  demand  for  certified  milk 
produced  under  the  supervision  of  medical  milk 
commissions  and  which  retails  at  prices  ranging 
from  10  to  20  cents  per  quart. 

CHAPTER  III 
ADVERTISING 

ALL  business  men  learn  that  judicious  advertising 
pays.  The  dairyman  is  no  exception  and  can  bring 
his  products  to  the  attention  of  the  public  in  many 
ways  and  with  little  expense.  A  few  examples  are 
given  as  follows : 


214  THE   BUSINESS   OF   DAIRYING 

1.  Appearance  of  the  farm. — Every  passer-by  un- 
consciously forms  his  opinion  of  the  farm  manage- 
ment and  quality  of  the  products  and  becomes  in 
himself  an  advertiser  or  otherwise.    Neat  surround- 
ings, buildings  well  painted  and  in  good  repair,  farm 
well  laid  out  and  good  crops,  all  help  to  make  a  good 
impression.     In  this  connection  the  author  calls  to 
mind  a  man  who  had  a  good  reputation  as  a  dairy 
farmer  and  on  driving  several  miles  across  country 
to  visit  him,  passing  farm  after  farm  poorly  cared 
for,  suddenly  came  in  sight  of  a  place  which  pre- 
sented a  great  contrast  to  those  already  seen.   The 
farm  was  well  laid  out,  the  crops  even  and  well  cul- 
tivated, two  silos  were  conspicuous  near  the  stable, 
and  the  whole  presented  a  neat,  attractive  and  busi- 
nesslike appearance.     I  did  not  need  to  be  told  that 
this  was  my  destination,  as  the  dairyman  lived  up 
to  his  reputation  and  the  farm  was  its  own  adver- 
tisement.   This  contrast  was  due  not  to  money  but 
to  business  methods. 

2.  Appearance  of  the  dairyman  and  his  team. — 
Like  the   dairy  farm,   the  dairyman  and   his  team 
should    present    a    neat,    businesslike    appearance, 
which  will  certainly  give  him  an  advantage  over  his 
careless  and  slovenly  neighbor.     While   this  alone 
will  not  insure  success,  it  helps  to  advertise  his  busi- 
ness. 

3.  Name  of  the  farm. — It  is  well  for  every  dairy- 
man to  have  a  name  for  his  farm,  which,  if  used  in 
business   transactions,  will   serve   as   a  trade  mark 
and  aid  in  selling  the  products.    Every  effort  should 
be  made,  therefore,  to  have  the  products  of  the  high- 


ADVERTISING 
SELECT    I>ALRY    PRODUCTS 


215 


Telephone 
Main  485 


aron 


atrp 


MILK  FROM 

VIRGINIA  AND   MARYLAND  DAIRIES 
...Proprietor  324  B  Street,  S.  W. 

Washington,  D.  C. 


STAR  FARM 

HOLSTEINS 

Use  here 
cut  of 

Proprietor 

11  VJL/L7  1  JL11  1  <J 

LARGEST  AND  BEST 
HERD  IN  THE  WORLD 

Bull  or  Cow 

CORTLAND 

N.  Y. 

Mercedes  Julip's  Pietertje's  Paul  29830 

Most  Noted  Holstein  Sire  in  the  World 

ILLUSTRATING  LETTER    HEAD  ADVERTISING 


SELECT  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 


PROPRIETOR 

325  B  ST.,  S.  w.,  WASHINGTON,  D.  c. 


RETURN    IN    S    DAYS 


ILLUSTRATING  ENVELOPE  ADVERTISING 


2l6  THE   BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

est  quality  in  order  that  this  trade  name  will  carry 
great  weight  wherever  it  goes  and  will  always  be 
identified  with  the  best  grade  of  goods. 

4.  Letterheads   and   printed   envelopes. — A   very 
inexpensive     method    of    advertising    is     through 
printed  letterheads  and  envelopes  used  in  business 
correspondence.    The  envelopes  may  bear  the  name 
of  the  farm,  the  proprietor  and  post-office  address. 
Fancy  characters  are  not  necessary  on  the  letter- 
heads, a  simple,  tasty  advertisement  put  up  in  at- 
tractive type  is  best.    The  local  printer  will  do  this 
work  at  surprisingly  low  cost. 

5.  Printed  circulars. — It  often  pays  to  put  before 
prospective  customers  a  single-page  circular  giving 
a  simple  businesslike  statement  of  the  products  for 
sale  and  the  prices  asked.  This  is  particularly  effec- 
tive where  the  dairyman  makes  a  specialty  of  high 
grade  milk  or  cream  or  dairy  butter. 

6.  Newspaper  advertising. — Where  the  business  is 
large  enough  to  warrant  it,  advertising  through  the 
newspapers    may   be    made   very    profitable.     This 
method  has  the  advantage  of  reaching  new  custom- 
ers and  a  large  number  of  people  at  once.    This  is 
the  most  expensive  form  of  advertising,  but  often 
brings  new  trade  and  enlarges  the  business.   Here, 
as  in  the  circular,  if  a  special  point  can  be  made  of 
high  grade  or  special  quality  of  products,  it  is  more 
likely  to  attract  a  prospective  customer. 

7.  A  good  product  the  best  advertisement. — An 
instance  came  under  the  writer's  observation,  where 
a  dairy  of  forty  cows  changed  management.  At  this 
time  many  of  the  animals  were  unhealthy,  buildings 


ADVERTISING  217 


Doing  business  under  permit  of  the  Health  Department 

Milk  from  Tuberculin- 
tested  Cows  for  Infant 
Feeding. 


Name 

Address... 


ILLUSTRATING  NEWSPAPER  ADVERTISING 

in  poor  repair,  stables  insanitary,  and  no  dairy  house 
provided  for  the  handling  of  the  milk  and  sterilizing 
utensils.  The  sales  of  milk  from  this  farm  had  not 
increased  materially  for  several  years,  and  the  farm 
was  not  paying  expenses.  While  a  fairly  good  qual- 
ity of  milk  (from  a  chemical  standpoint)  was  sold,  it 
was  not  clean.  The  new  manager  began  his  work 
by  removing  the  unhealthy  animals,  improving  the 
buildings  in  a  sanitary  way  and  providing  a  dairy 
building.  These  changes,  however,  were  made 
slowly,  as  the  money  had  to  be  earned  to  provide  for 
the  expense.  One  important  improvement  in  the 
delivery  of  milk  was  the  change  from  the  "dippage" 
system  to  the  use  of  bottles.  No  advertising  was 
done  aside  from  supplying  good  milk,  the  ground 


2l8  THE   BUSINESS  OF   DAIRYING 

being  taken  that  a  good  product  should  sell  itself. 
The  price  charged  for  the  milk  was  the  same  as  in 
previous  years.  During  the  first  year,  when  changes 
were  being  made,  there  was  an  increase  in  the  sales 
of  but  5  per  cent.  The  following  year,  when  milk 
that  was  clean  as  well  as  rich  was  guaranteed,  the 
increase  amounted  to  about  19  per  cent.,  or  a  total 
gain  to  the  farm  of  about  $1,000  in  the  annual  in- 
come. This  was  obtained  with  little  other  increase 
in  cost  than  in  the  extra  animals  and  in  the  feed,  as 
the  labor  necessary  for  handling  the  milk  in  produc- 
tion and  delivery  was  the  same  as  that  found  neces- 
sary in  the  case  of  the  smaller  product.  In  the  years 
which  followed,  the  increase  was  even  more  marked, 
these  results  being  obtained  wholly  by  better  busi- 
ness management  resulting  in  a  high-grade  product. 


CHAPTER  IV 
BUSINESS  ACCOUNTS  ON  A  DAIRY  FARM 

THE  importance  of  keeping  separate  farm  records 
has  already  been  emphasized,  and  the  business  ac- 
counts are  no  less  important  in  the  general  system. 
A  complicated  system  of  records  involving  double- 
entry  bookkeeping  is  not  necessary  on  the  average 
dairy  farm,  but  a  simple  cash  account  and  a  ledger 
is  within  the  compass  of  the  average  farmer  and 
(with  an  inventory  taken  once  a  year)  is  all  that  is 
required. 

The  specimen  pages  shown  herewith  help  to 
make  this  clear.  For  the  sake  of  brevity  the  milk 


BUSINESS  ACCOUNTS  ON  A  DAIRY  FARM          2IQ 

888888888  § 


g 


EH 

o          .    r     :  P, 

''       *       J       5     fc 
A 

1      I      1      t     *      ft      £ 

«      5        S        -        '        S        3 

< 

» 

) 

|   ,:  j  |  I  II 
2S"    Igfl^sa 

o     •»      •» 

i 


220  THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

sales  in  the  accompanying  cash  account  are  entered 
but  once  a  week — the  ordinary  dairyman  would  per- 
haps enter  them  daily.  He  should  be  sure  that  the 
cash  on  hand  at  the  end  of  any  month  agrees  per- 
fectly with  the  balance  in  his  cash  book. 


LEDGER 

In  the  ledger  we  keep  an  account  with  persons. 
On  January  ist,  John  Smith  owed  a  balance  of  $10, 
which  he  paid  January  2Oth,  thus  closing  his  ac- 
count. At  the  beginning  of  the  month  Henry  Hud- 
son owed  a  balance  of  $65.16,  but  on  January  23d 
paid  $55.16,  leaving  a  balance  January  3ist  of  $10, 
which  is  an  asset.  On  January  ist  we  owed  J.  John- 
son $25,  but  on  January  22d  paid  him  $15  on  ac- 
count, leaving  us  $10  in  his  debt — a  $10  liability. 
These  are  the  only  forms  of  accounts  which  arise 
in  ordinary  transactions,  and  if  the  fundamental 
principles  are  understood  the  dairyman  need  have 
no  difficulty  in  keeping  his  own  business  accounts. 


INVENTORY 

The  receipts  and  expenditures  alone  do  not  show 
the  real  profits  and  losses  of  the  business  during  the 
year.  It  is  necessary  to  take  an  inventory  of  the 
property  on  hand.  This  should  include  property  <.f 
every  description.  The  difference  between  the  as- 
sets and  the  liabilities  will  give  the  net  value.  It  is 
of  interest  to  keep  these  records  year  after  year,  to 
make  comparisons. 


BUSINESS  ACCOUNTS  ON  A  DAIRY  FARM          221 


ill 

§! 

hi 


S    8 

2 

8            8 

s  s 

§ 

S                        0* 

1  1 

d 

0 

M 

M 

8    53 

^  i 

- 

d 

0     5 
m 

1 

s 

5 

S 

888 

8 

8 

5    S       3 

I 
g 

r 

1 

ii 

- 

5 

S    5 

1 

s 

1       " 

222  THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 

ASSETS. 

1.  Real  estate: 

a.  Land. 

b.  Water  supplies. 

c.  Growing  crops. 

d.  Buildings. 

2.  Live  stock. 

3.  Implements. 

4.  Farm  products. 

5.  Notes  receivable. 

6.  Stocks,  bonds,  etc. 

7.  Personal  accounts  (owing  us). 

8.  Cash  in  bank. 

9.  Cash  on  hand. 


LIABILITIES. 

1.  Notes  payable. 

2.  Mortgages. 

3.  Store  bills. 

4.  Personal  accounts  (we  owe). 

The  inventory  may  be  taken  during  any  month 
at  the  convenience  of  the  dairyman,  but  is  most  fre- 
quently taken  at  the  close  of  the  year,  December  3 1  st, 
when  all  books  are  balanced.  There  are  some  rea- 
sons why  other  times  are  more  convenient,  as,  for 
example,  in  April  or  May ;  the  supply  of  hay  in  the 
barn  is  low,  the  silos  have  become  empty,  and  it  is 
easier  to  estimate  the  value  of  such  materials  at  this 
time.  The  objection  to  this  date  is  that  the  dairy- 


BUSINESS  ACCOUNTS  ON   A  DAIRY   FARM          223 

man  is  busy  with  field  work  and  does  not  like  to 
take  the  time  to  balance  his  accounts. 

To  take  an  inventory  properly  requires  good 
judgment  of  farm  equipment  and  values.  It  is  some- 
times necessary  to  consider  cost  and  selling  price 
as  well  as  actual  service  value  to  the  owner.  Due 
consideration  should  be  given  to  deterioration  of 
real  estate,  machinery,  and  live  stock. 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 


227 


Digestible  Nutrients  in  One  Pound  of  the  More  Common 
Feeding  Stuffs  (Stone) 


KIND  OF  FOOD 

Total 
Dry 
Mat- 
ter 

Pounds  of  Diges- 
tible Nutrients 

Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 

Protein 

£+£ 

ill 

Q-0.2 

Total 

SOILING  FODDER 
Fodder    Corn                    

.20 
.16 
.16 
.29 
.28 
.29 
.21 

.21 
.09 
.13 
.11 
.10 

.87 
.87 
.92 
.85 
.92 
.58 
.60 
.86 
.95 
.90 
.91 

.89 
.90 
.88 
.89 
.89 
.87 
.90 

.85 
.88 
.88 
.90 
.88 
.88 
.90 
.87 

.010 
.018 
.017 
.029 
.039 
.020 
.009 

.009 
.011 
.011 
.008 
.010 

.028 
.062 
.045 
.068 
.110 
.025 
.017 
.043 
.036 
.004 
.012 

.079 
.102 

.099 
.087 
.092 
.077 
.168 

.044 
.122 
.128 
.135 
.082 
.115 
.074 
.220 

.125 
.076 
.077 
.164 
.138 
.169 
.129 

.165 
.056 
.104 
.082 
.077 

.465 
.460 
.546 
.396 
.423 
.373 
.340 
.341 
.397 
.372 
.404 

.764 
.730 
.700 
.692 
.568 
.533 
.534 

.665 
.453 
.607 
.658 
.647 
.548 
.347 
.456 

.135 

.094 
.094 
.193 
.177 
.189 
.138 

.174 
.067 
.115 
.090 
.087 

.493 
.522 
.591 
.464 
.533 
.398 
.357 
.384 
.433 
.376 
4.16 

.843 
.832 
.499 
.779 
.660 
.610 
.702 

.709 
.575 
.735 
.793 
.729 
.663 
.421 
.676 

1:12.5 
1:  4.2 
1:  4.5 
1:  5.6 
1:  3.5 
1:  8.4 
1:14.3 

1:18.3 
1:  5.1 
1:  9.4 
1:10.3 
1:  7.7 

1:16.6 
1:  7.4 
1:12.1 
1:  5.8 
1:  3.8 
1:14.9 
1:19.9 
1:  7.9 
1:11.0 
1:93 
1:33.6 

1:  9.7 
1:  7.2 
1:  7.1 
1:  7.9 
1:  6.2 
1:  6.9 
1:  3.2 

1:15.1 
:  3.7 
:  4.7 
:  4.9 
:  7.9 
:  4.8 
:  4.7 
:  2.1 

Peas   rind    Uarley                               ... 

Red    Clover 

Alfalfa                                               

Corn  Silage                    .         

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS 
Potatoes 

Beet    Su^ar                       

Flat    Turnip                                 .        

HAY  AND  STRAW 
Timothy    

Mixed  Grasses  and  Clover  

Hungarian  Hay  

Red   Clover  Hay  

Alfalfa    Hay 

Corn    Fodder    

Corn    Stover  

Pea-vine   Straw  

Benn   Straw  

Wheat    Straw  

Oat    Straw 

GRAIN 

Corn    (Av  ) 

Wheat    . 

Rye 

Barley     

Oats                                            

Buckwheat                    . 

Peas   

MILL  PRODUCTS 
Corn  and  Cob  Meal  , 

\Vheat   Bran 

Wheat    Middlings 

Dark   Feeding  Flour  

Low  Grade  Flour      4 

Rye   Bran  

Buckwheat    Bran 

Buckwheat  Middlings  

(Continued  on  page  238) 


228 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


Digestible  Nutrients  in  One  Pound  of  the  More  Common 
Feeding  Stuffs  (Stone) 
(Continued  from  page  227) 


KIND  OF  FOOD 

Total 
Dry 
Mat- 
ter 

Pounds  of  Diges- 
tible Nutrients 

Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 

Protein 

£+i 

o  »e» 

11 

Total 

RYE  PRODUCTS 
Malt  Sprouts                        

.90 
.24 
.92 
.92 
.92 
.89 
.91 
.90 
.92 

.15 
.12 
.10 
.79 
.233 
.096 
.094 
.10 

.186 
.039 
.157 
.194 
.258 
.075 
.293 
.282 
.372 

.018 
.017 
.006 
.091 
.011 
.031 
.029 
.039 

.409 
.125 
.478 
.633 
.656 
.705 
.485 
.464 
.444 

.091 
.051 
.073 
.595 
.164 
.065 
.059 
.065 

.595 
.164 
.635 

.827 
.914 
.780 
.778 
.746 
.816 

.109 
.068 
.079 
.686 
.175 
.096 
.088 
.104 

1:  2.2 
1:  3.2 
1:  3.0 
1:  3.3 
1:  2.5 
1:  9.4 
1:  1.7 
1:  1.6 
1:  1.2 

1:  5.1 
"iiiz" 

1:  6.5 
1:14.9 
1:  2.1 
1:  2.0 
1:  1.7 

Brewers'  Grains  (wet)  

Brewers'  Grains  (dry).  .. 

Gluten  Feed  

Gluten  Meal 

Hominy  Chops       

Linseed  Meal  (old  process) 

Linseed  Meal  (new  process)  

Cotton-seed    Meal  

MISCELLANEOUS 
Cabbage 

Sugar  Beet  Leaves  
Sugar  Beet  Pulp  

Beet  Molasses                  .....         ..        . 

Apple  Pomace  

Skim  Milk  (gravity) 

Skim  Milk   (centrifugal)  

Butter  Milk 

Elements  of  Fertility  in  1,000  Ibs.  (Stone) 


*1 

*l 

Water  in 
1000  Ibs. 

as 
3| 

§  ^ 

§3 

Phosphoric 
Acid 
in  1000  Ibs. 

Potash 
in  1000  Ibs. 

Estimated 
Value 
per  ton 

1 

2 
3 
4 
B 

Maize  Fodder  (green)... 
Peas  and  Oats  (green).. 
Barley  and  Peas  (green) 
Red  Clover  (green)  
Alfalfa  (green) 

45 

42 

11 

828 

467 
755 
790 
760 

14.7 
16.05 
16.7 
16 
22  1 

1.6 
2.8 
2.7 
4.6 
6  2 

1.1 
1.65 
1.8 
1.5 
1  5 

3.9 
6.25 
5.05 
4.8 
3  5 

$0.90 
1.50 
1.38 
1.86 
2  18 

6 

7 

S 

Hungarian  grass  (green) 
Corn  Silage  (green)  
Potatoes  

6 
197 

870 
779 
750 

12 

ii 

3.2 
1.4 
1  4 

.7 
1.1 
1  6 

4.7 
3.7 

5  7 

1.38 
.82 
1  04 

f) 

Mangle-  werzel 

873 

12  2 

1  7 

9 

3  8 

90 

10 

Beets  (Sugar)  

68 

820 

8  1 

1  7 

g 

3  7 

88 

11 

Carrots 

63 

870 

10 

1  2 

9 

2  6 

65 

1? 

Timothy  Hay.  

69 

143 

41  1 

4  4 

5  o 

14  1 

2  95 

(Continued  on  page  229) 


APPENDIX 


229 


Elements  of  Fertility  in  1,000  Ibs.  (Stone) 

(Continued  from  page  228) 


°.I 
*1 

Water  in 
1000  Ibs.  || 

Ash  in 
1000  Ibs.  || 

Nitrogen 
in  1000  Ibs. 

Phosphoric 
Acid 
in  1000  Ibs. 

Potash 
in  1000  Ibs. 

Estimated 
Value 

per  ton  || 

13 

Mixed    Hav  

393 

137 

64.5 

9.9 

4.1 

13.2 

$4.33 

11 

Hungarian  Hay 

77 

61  8 

7  2 

3  5 

13  0 

3  50 

15 

Red   Clover  Hay... 

178 

170 

62.1 

10.8 

5.5 

18.7 

5.20 

16 

Alfalfa    Hay 

117 

153 

80  2 

17.6 

6  1 

17  9 

7  08 

17 

Corn  Fodder  with  Ears.. 

92 

37.4 

4.0 

2.9 

14.0 

2.64 

IS 

Corn    Stover 

150 

45  3 

2  7 

3  8 

16  4 

2  57 

IP 

Pea  Vine  Straw  

53 

136 

66.0 

6.8 

3.5 

10.2 

3.14 

°0 

Wheat  Straw    .      ... 

80 

136 

53  0 

64 

2  2 

6  3 

94 

?1 

Oat  Straw  

55 

145 

57.0 

1.9 

2.8 

17.7 

2.38 

00 

Indian  Corn 

14.9 

130 

14  8 

12  6 

5  7 

3  7 

4  34 

98 

Wheat  

1358 

134 

17.1 

16.3 

8.7 

5.5 

5.84 

?1 

Rye     

257 

134 

19  8 

15  8 

8  6 

5  g 

5  72 

0^ 

Barley 

1128 

143 

24  8 

13  9 

7  9 

4  8 

5  04 

96 

Oats  

560 

133 

31  0 

14  7 

6  9 

4  8 

5  16 

07 

Buckwheat 

20 

141 

27  7 

12  3 

6  9 

3  0 

4  34 

9R 

Peas   .... 

118 

140 

28  1 

26  8 

8  4 

10  1 

9  16 

?0 

Corn-cob  Meal  

90 

7.0 

5.7 

4  7 

2  90 

30 

Wheat   Bran  

93 

132 

58  0 

19  5 

26  9 

15  2 

9  24 

81 

Wheat  Middlings  

24 

126 

27  0 

20.4 

13  5 

7.4 

7.60 

n 

Dark  Feeding  Flour... 

98 

12  2 

21  6 

5  7 

5  4 

7  04 

H 

Rye  Bran 

230 

1°5 

46  0 

18  4 

22  8 

14  0 

8  46 

34 

Buckwheat  Bran  

5 

156 

28  0 

11  8 

4  2 

12  7 

4  82 

35 
36 

Buckwheat  Mid.  (coarse) 
Malt  Sprouts  

6 
128 

120 
120 

47.0 
75  1 

35.2 

29  7 

12.3 
17  4 

11.4 
19  9 

11.98 
11  68 

37 
38 
SO 

Brewer's  Grains  (wet).. 
Brewer's  Grains  (dry).. 
Gluten  Meal     .  . 

158 
168 

762 
95 
86 

12.4 
47.2 
7  3 

6.2 
25.1 
41  2 

4.2 
16.1 
3  3 

5 
2.0 
5 

2.16 
8.70 
11  18 

40 

Hominy  Feed  

89 

22  1 

12  0 

9  8 

4  9 

4  68 

41 

Linseed       Meal       (old 
process)  . 

89 

61  0 

46  8 

16  6 

13  7 

15  83 

42 

Linseed      Meal      (new 
process)  ... 

20 

110 

45  1 

17  4 

13  4 

15  40 

43 

Cotton-seed    Meal  

142 

88 

70  5 

59  5 

30  4 

15  8 

20  82 

44 

Cabbage  

7 

856 

14  1 

2  8 

2  2 

5  2 

1  48 

45 

Sugar  Beet  Leaves  

8 

880 

23  9 

2  7 

1  5 

6  2 

1  25 

46 

Sugar  Beet  Pulp  

15 

898 

5  g 

96 

2 

4 

32 

47 

Beet  Molasses 

35 

207 

106 

14  5 

5 

56  3 

9  16 

48 

Apple  Pomace  

5 

740 

8  2 

1  7 

1 

3 

26 

40 
50 
51 

Skim-milk    (gravity)  
Skim-milk   (centrifugal) 
Bean   Straw  

96 

7 
6 

904 
906 
53 

7 
7.4 
69 

4.9 
4.6 
11  4 

2.1 
2.1 
2  1 

2.0 
2.0 
18  4 

1.74 
1.65 
5  04 

fi? 

Turnips   

905 

g 

1  8 

1 

3  9 

91 

INDEX 


PAGE 

Accounts: 

Daily  record  of 200 

Dairy  farm 218 

Advertising    213 

Illustrating  newspaper.. 217 

Letterhead  for 215 

Newspapers 216 

Advertisement: 

A  good  product  the  best....  216 

Alfalfa: 

Green 25,  32,  44 

Hay   145,  146 

Animal  body: 

Composition  of 126 

Babcock   test 85 

Barley 31 

Breed: 
American     analysis     of     milk 

from    76,  77 

Ayrshire   58,  78 

Brown    Swiss 69,  78 

Definition    of 58 

Devon    70 

Dual-purpose 57 

Dutch   Belted 71 

European     analysis     of     milk 

from   76 

French-Canadian    78 

General-purpose   57 

Guernsey    60,  78 

Holstein    62,  78 

Jersey    65,  78 

Polled  Durham 74 

Polled  Jersey 78 


PAGE 

Principal  dairy 58 

Red    Polled 75,  78 

Selecting    55 

Shorthorn 72,  78 

Special  adaptation  of 57 

Special   purpose 57 

Tests  of 76 

The  man  more  important  than  67 

Broomcorn    34 

Cash  book 219 

Circulars,   printed 216 

Clover,  crimson 12,  25,  33,  44 

Corn: 

Continuous  growing  of 19 

Cows  to  support  twenty  acres 

of    18 

Indian 28,  32,  33,  143 

Cowpeas   12,29,  33 

Cows     156 

Average  net  profit  from 170 

Causes  of  low  yields  of no 

Cost  of  keeping 108,  109 

Cleanliness    of 171 

Not  expensive  to  raise 115 

Variation  in  milk  from 208 

Cow  Test  associations: 

Business     methods     promoted 

by    117 

By-laws  of 119,  120 

How  work  is  conducted  in...  117 

Results   of 118 

Cropping: 

Intensive  system  of 21 

Crops  (Soiling) 21 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  DAIRYING 


PAGE 

A  few  standard  best 32 

Advantages   of 5  i 

Combinations    of 37 

Combinations  that  are  practi- 
cal    35 

Cutting 38 

Date    for  planting  in   Oregon 

and    Washington 50 

Feeding    38 

For  Illinois     48 

For  Pennsylvania    48 

For  Wisconsin   49 

Handling   38 

Kind    of 45,  147 

Leguminous    19 

Nutrients  in    45,  147 

Rotations,    examples  of 47 

Succession  in  different  States.  47 

Succession    of 42 

Value  per  acre  of 44 

Topdressing  for 40 

Value  per  acre  of 44 

Yield  of 45,  *47 

Dairies,     greater    profit    from 

high  scoring 185 

Dairy   farm: 

Business   accounts    on 223 

Dairy  farmer: 

Product  most  profitable  for..   204 
Dairying,  winter  too  much  neg- 
lected        194 

Dairyman: 

Appearance  of  the 214 

Free  literature  for in 

Dairy     products,      fertility     re- 
moved in 18 

Doura    (Millo-Maize) 34 

Envelopes,    printed 216 

Farm,  appearance  of 214 

Name  of  the 214 

Fat,   yield    of 161 

Feeds,      advantages      of     home- 
grown         154 


PAGE 

Chemical  analysis  of 129 

Constituents  in 127,  128 

Cost    of 157 

Fertility   elements   in 15 

Home-grown   for   winter   use.  144 

Losses    due   to 155 

Nutrients  in  one  pound  of...  141 

Feeding,    advantages    of    stand- 
ards in 131 

Business   methods   in 125 

Standards   for 130 

Standards   for    heifers 142 

Standards  for  mature  cows..  143 

Fertility,    business    methods    in 

maintaining 17 

Sold  in  butter    206 

Sold  in  cream 206 

Sold  in  milk     206 

Fertilizers,  home  mixing  of.  ...  7 

Use  of   19 

Forage,  as  a  complete  ration...  39 
Influence    of,    upon    flavor   of 

milk    34 

Palatability    of 34 

Value   of 33 

What   constitutes  value  in...  32 

Yield  and  composition  of....  32 

Grasses    (mixed) 28 

Haecker,   observations  by 134 

Hay,  alfalfa 145,   146,  153 

Cowpea 152 

Crimson  clover 147,    148.  149 

Herd,  improvement  of in,  116 

Raising  cows  for 113 

Service  record  of 113 

Inventory    220 

Kaffir   corn 31,  33 

Ledger    220,  221 

Letterheads   216 

Liabilities     222 

Manure 17 


INDEX 


233 


PAGE 

Milk,     average     cost     of,     for 

seven  years 169 

Average  production  per  cow..     90 

Cooling  and  storage  of 182 

Cost  of  producing. .  164,    165,   169 

Fertility  elements  in 15 

Form   for  reporting  sales  of.   201 

Handling   198 

Increasing  yield  of 92 

Lack   of   uniformity  in 204 

Lack  of  uniformity  in  sanitary 

qualities  of 212 

Losses  due  to  waste  of 199 

Possibility  of  uniformity  in. .   207 

Production    of 91 

Qualities    of 212 

Quart  basis  of  selling  unfair.  209 

Raising  standard  of 164 

Record   board   for 89 

Retailing    198 

Sanitary    methods    in    produc- 
ing        171 

Standards  used  for  judging. .   212 
Yield   of 91,    161,  164 

Milkers,    cleanliness   of 181 

Healthfulness  of 181 

Milk-house,  construction  of....    179 

Equipment   of 178,   179 

Light  in 178 

Location  of 178 

Ventilation  of 178 

Milking,  preparation  for 181 

Milking  machine 188,   189,   194 

Cost    of 191 

Description    of 182 

Power  for 192 

Milk    records,    accuracy,    neces- 
sity for 81,  82,     83 

Easily   kept 83 

Examples        of        importance 

of , 80,     8r 

Form    for  daily 84 

Value  of   79 

Millets 30,     33 

Nitrate  of  soda 14 

Nitrogen   12,   14,     17 


PAGE 

Peas,   Canada  field 12 

Peas  and  oats 28,  32 

Phosphoric   acid 12,  14 

Potash   12,   14,  17 

Prices,  comparison  of,  in  butter.  205 

Comparison  of,  in  butterfat. .  205 

Comparison  of,  in  cream....  205 

Comparison  of,  in  milk 205 

Product,  cost  per  unit  of 158 

Public,  education  of 211 

Rape   (Dwarf  Essex) 34 

Rations,    calculation   of 132 

Losses   from  poor 159 

Wolff's  standard  for.  133,  134,  139 
Records,    average    of    purebred 

cows   104 

Importance   of  purebred 94 

Methods  of  estimating 90 

Of  grade  cows.  104,   105,   106,  107 
Of  herds  owned  by  creamery 

patrons 108 

Of  purebred  cows.  .95,  96,  97,  98 

99,  100,   101,  102,  103 

Rye    (green) 24,   32,  33 

Score  card,  dairy 182,  186,  187 

Silage,  corn.. 21,   149,  157,   158,  160 

Cowpea 149 

Soy  bean 153 

Soil,  account  with 5 

As  capital 5 

Balance  sheet  for 8 

Dairy  mans'    capital 5 

Deposits  in 6 

Exhaustion   of 14 

Expenditure   of   fertility  in..  8 

Fertility    restored   to 19 

Fertility  value  in 18 

Financial  balance  of 13 

Future  treatment  of 13 

Soiling,    advantages    of 51 

Average    yield    of    milk    and 

fat    from 54 

Crops    for 24 

Disadvantages  of 52 


234 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Greater  variety  of  food  from.  51 
Increased  food  production 

from  51 

Increased  labor  required 

from  52 

Increased  milk  and  butter 

production  from 52 

Increased  quantity  and  better 

quality  of  manure  from...  52 

Laying  out  the  farm  for....  22 
Less  discomfort  and  better 

condition  of  animals  from.  52 

Less  fencing  required  for...  51 

Less  land  required  for 51 

Less  waste  in 51 

More  practical  knowledge  for.  52 

Partial  24 

V.  S.  silage 53 


PAGE 

Sorghum    33 

Soy  beans 29,  33,  145 

Stable,   construction  of 174 

Proper    sanitation    of 174 

Stanchions,   desirability  of 175 

Stall  (box),  importance  of...  175 

Team,   appearance  of 214 

Tickets,    use   of 202 

Utensils,  cleaning  of 181 

Ventilation,    systems   of....  176,  178 

Wheat,  continuous  growing  of.     19 

Green    25,  32,  33,     44 

Removal  of  fertility  in 18 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

AGRICULTURE    LIBRARY 

40  Giannini  Hali  -  Tel.  No.  642-4493 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


LD  21-32m-3,'74 
(R7057slO)476 — A-32 


Univt. 


U  C  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 

Hilllil 

(10273^7^0 


